Posted: April 25th, 2025

Applied Sciences ABA501 – Assignment 1

In this assignment, you are to provide a detailed analysis of the following article:

Using A Taped Intervention To Improve Kindergarten Students’ Number Identification

 
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3405940/

by Katherine R Krohn, Christopher H. Skinner, Emily J. Fuller, and Corrine Greear

The analysis should be a minimum of 3 pages in length, presented in APA formatting, and contain the following information: 

1.       The rationale for the study.

2.       A brief description of the method and results.

3.       An evaluation of whether the study was consistent with the goals of behavior analysis as a science (why or why not).

4.       Discuss how the study addressed the dimensions of ABA.

5.       A summary of the lessons learned from the study and if there is an application to future practice or research.

Please note: Your assignment should be submitted in a Word Document format using Times New Roman 12. The assignment must use APA format (See link to APA publication style in the course site resources.)  Please include an appropriate heading on your paper and references to support methods or procedures used.

Rubric for ABA501 Assignment 1
Grading item

Completely accurate

in content and clearly

articulated

Partially inaccurate in

content OR somewhat

unclear

in articulation

Partially inaccurate in

content AND unclear

in articulation

Item is missing or

completely inaccurate

in content
Rationale for the study

1

0

7 3

0

Description of Methods

• Subjects

• Setting

• Independent variable

• Dependent variable

• Experimental design

• Procedure for baseline

• Procedure for intervention

• Procedure for maintenance

10

(1.5 pts per item but

max 10)

—

Based on items correct.

—

Based on items correct.

0

Description of Results

• Performance during baseline

• Performance during intervention phase

• Performance during maintenance phase

• Need for additional interventions for one

participant

10

(2.5 points per item)

—

Based on items correct.

—

Based on items correct.

0

Discussion of study with respect to 3 goals

of

behavior analysis

• Description

• Prediction

• Control

15

(5 points per item)

—

Based on items correct.

5 –if talked about other

“goals” or “focuses” of

behavior analysis

Or only 1 item correct

0

Description of study with respect to 7

dimensions of ABA

• Applied

• Behavioral

• Analytic

• Technological

• Effective

• Conceptually based

• Generality

20

(3 points per item with

Max 20)

—

Based on items correct

—

Based on items correct

0

Summary of lessons learned

10 7 3 0

Future directions

10 7 3 0

Overall writing (clarity, formatting)

15 10 5 0

Final Grade Max. 100 pts.

APA Style Links:

1) Sample student paper using APA style: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/paper-format/student-annotated

2) Student Paper Setup Guide: https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/student-paper-setup-guide

3) Heading Levels Template for a Student Paper: https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/heading-template-student-paper

4) Student Title Page Guide: https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/student-title-page-guide

5) Reference Examples: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples

https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/paper-format/student-annotated

https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/student-paper-setup-guide

https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/heading-template-student-paper

https://apastyle.apa.org/instructional-aids/student-title-page-guide

https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/references/examples

USING A TAPED INTERVENTION TO IMPROVE KINDERGARTEN
STUDENTS’ NUMBER IDENTIFICATION

KATHERINE R. KROHN, CHRISTOPHER H. SKINNER, AND EMILY J. FULLER

UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE

AND

CORRINE GREEAR

KNOX COUNTY PUBLIC SCHOOLS

A multiple baseline design across students was used to evaluate the effects of a taped numbers
(TN) intervention on the number-identification accuracy of 4 kindergarten students. During
TN, students attempted to name the numbers 0 through 9 on randomized lists before each
number was provided via a tape player 2 s later. All 4 students showed immediate increases and
reached 100% in number-identification accuracy. One student reached 100% accuracy after TN
was supplemented with performance feedback, reinforcement, and overcorrection.

Key words: mathematics, early intervention, academic responding, constant prompt delay

_______________________________________________________________________________

Although most children begin school with
core number competencies, others need targeted
teaching and learning activities to acquire these
skills (Klibanoff, Levine, Huttenlocher, Vasi-
lyeva, & Hedges, 2006; National Research
Council, 2009). The ability to identify numbers
is a critical early numeracy competency and a
prerequisite for the development of other math
skills (Jordan, Kaplan, Oláh, & Locuniak,
2006). Although number-identification deficits
may predict later mathematics difficulties
(Clarke & Shinn, 2004; Fuchs et al., 2007),
few studies have examined effective ways to
remedy this early skill deficit (Chard et al.,
2008; Gersten, Jordan, & Flojo, 2005).

Taped interventions offer a low-tech solution
to the delivery of basic academic skill instruction
and have been used to remedy sight-word reading
(e.g., Bliss, Skinner, & Adams, 2006) and math-
fact deficits (e.g., McCallum, Skinner, Turner, &

Saecker, 2006), enhancing both accuracy and
automaticity. In taped interventions, students are
presented with visual stimuli (e.g., word lists,
math problems) and are instructed to say the
correct response before it is provided by an
audiotape recorder. Such procedures minimize
errors and allow a large number of learning trials
within a short amount of time, thereby maximiz-
ing learning rates (see Skinner, 2008). Taped
interventions have been used with both individ-
uals and groups, but usually have been applied
with older elementary school children in special
education settings. The current study extends
research on taped interventions by targeting a
basic numeracy skill (as opposed to higher level
math skills), adapting previous procedures (i.e.,
using a tone to signal the introduction of a new
trial rather than numbering the trials; selecting a
2-s constant prompt delay), intervening in the
general education setting as a means of primary
prevention, and evaluating the effects of the
modified intervention with kindergarten students.

METHOD

Participants and Setting

Four kindergarten students (two boys and two
girls) participated. Three students were Hispanic

Emily J. Fuller is now at Hamblen County Schools,
Tennessee.

This work was completed with the support of the Korn
Learning Assessment and Social Skills Center at the
University of Tennessee.

Correspondence concerning this article should be
addressed to Katherine Krohn, who is now at the
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center (e-mail:
Katherine.Krohn@cchmc.org).

doi: 10.1901/jaba.2012.45-

437

JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 2012, 45, 437–441 NUMBER 2 (SUMMER 2012)

437

(referred to as Anita, Cristina, and Carlos) and
received services from a teacher for English
language learners who indicated that each had
limited English language skills, typically spoke in
short sentences, and relied heavily on nonverbal
communication. The other participant (David, an
African-American) was nominated for inclusion
by his teacher, who felt that he might benefit from
the small-group instruction in math. All four
participants were referred due to difficulty with
number identification. Sessions were conducted at
a table in a back corner of the classroom.

Response Measurement and
Interobserver Agreement

Data on correct number identification were
collected using assessment sheets with the num-
bers 0 through 9 listed in a random order. Five
different assessment sheets were constructed and
alternated across sessions to ensure that students
did not memorize placement of numbers. The
primary experimenter assessed participants indi-
vidually by pointing to each number on the sheet
and asking the student to name the number. No
feedback was provided. If the student did not
respond accurately within 5 s, the experimenter
scored an error and pointed to the next number;
students were permitted one self-correction within
that time frame. For each assessment, the numbers
read correctly were summed and converted to a
percentage score, which served as our dependent
variable.

Interobserver agreement data were collected
during at least 25% of assessment sessions for
each participant. Agreement was determined by
comparing the numbers written down by each
observer. There were no disagreements across all
students and sessions.

Design and Procedure

Sessions took place in the mornings 3 days
per week (Monday, Wednesday, and Friday). A
multiple baseline design across subjects was
used to evaluate the effects of the taped
numbers (TN) intervention. The intervention
was applied both individually and in small

groups. Carlos received the TN intervention by
himself during the first intervention session. For
each of the following three TN sessions, another
student was added to the TN group.

Baseline. Students received their regular math-
ematics instruction. Individual assessments were
completed during a morning transition period.

Taped numbers. At the start of the session, each
participant was given the same worksheet that
contained four columns listing the numerals 0
through 9 in random order (i.e., a worksheet
contained 40 trials). Five different TN worksheets
were constructed, and one was randomly selected
for each session. Worksheets corresponded to an
audiotaped recording of the numbers, in which
the numbers were read aloud in the order they
appeared on the worksheet. The tapes were
constructed so that each trial consisted of a 1-s
tone to signal the start of the trial, followed by a
2-s delay for the student to attempt to read the
number aloud, and then a recording of the
number being read in English. The next trial
began 2 s later when the next tone sounded. We
used 2-s response intervals, because previous
researchers reported that longer intervals evoked
off-task behavior (Windingstad, Skinner, Row-
land, Cardin, & Fearrington, 2009).

The experimenter sat at the table with the
participant during each session and read the
following instructions at the start of the session:

Let’s play this game. When you hear a noise, say the
number you see and then wait until you hear what
the tape says to see if you got it right. Then, repeat
the number after you hear the tape say it. What you
want to do is try to beat the tape and say the number
before you hear the answer. Are you ready?

To help students keep their place and prompt
simultaneous responding, the experimenter
pointed to each number following the tone.
Students were assessed both individually and
immediately after each TN session. TN sessions
required about 3 to 4 min (tape length was
approximately 200 s), and each student’s
assessment never exceeded 40 s.

A treatment integrity checklist was used to
evaluate whether the experimenter implemented

438 KATHERINE R. KROHN et al.

procedures correctly (i.e., read the appropriate
directions before starting the tape, prompted
students to attend to the correct stimulus,
placed the appropriate worksheet in front of
students, withheld feedback in the assessment).
An independent observer recorded treatment
integrity data during four of the 12 TN
sessions. Treatment integrity was 100%.

Feedback, overcorrection, and reinforcement.
Immediately after the first TN session, Carlos
showed improved number-identification accura-
cy. However, his performance was variable, and he
never reached 100% accuracy after 11 TN
sessions. Consequently, on the 12th session, TN
was supplemented with performance feedback,
overcorrection, and reinforcement. After each TN
assessment, the experimenter evaluated Carlos’s
assessment sheet and told him which numbers he
identified correctly and incorrectly. Next, he was
asked to write the latter numbers three times and
to say each number aloud while writing. Carlos
also was told that he would receive a sticker (a
teacher-recommended reward) when he respond-
ed with 100% accuracy on assessments.

Maintenance. Participants moved to the main-
tenance phase when they achieved 100% accuracy
on three of four consecutive assessments. Accuracy
was assessed as in other phases, but children no
longer participated in TN sessions.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The percentage of numbers identified correct-
ly across baseline, intervention, and maintenance
phases are displayed in Figure 1 for each student
(gaps in the data paths correspond to student
absences). All four participants showed a clear
increasing trend in number-identification accu-
racy following the application of TN. No
overlapping data points were observed between
conditions for students, with the exception of
Cristina (the percentage of nonoverlapping data
between Cristina’s baseline and intervention
phases was approximately 86%). Cristina’s
baseline performance was variable, and she
continued to make errors when naming two

numerals (i.e., 6 and 9) until the seventh TN
session. David’s accuracy increased to 100%
following one TN session and remained perfect
for the next three sessions. David’s immediate
acquisition and sustained mastery, combined
with teacher-reported low rates of attention and
participation during regular classroom mathe-
matics instruction, suggested the possibility of a
performance deficit rather than a skill deficit.
Anita demonstrated a similar pattern of respond-
ing to David, but anecdotal evidence of her
behavior during lessons suggested that TN
remediated a skill deficit. Anita, Cristina, and
David achieved and maintained 100% accuracy
with TN, whereas Carlos achieved and main-
tained 100% accuracy after TN was supple-
mented with feedback, overcorrection, and
reinforcement.

The results support the effectiveness of tape-
assisted interventions and provide evidence of
generality to a wider population of learners
(kindergarten students, three of whom were
English language learners) and tasks (number
identification). Although maintenance data
spanned approximately 1 month, the teacher
reported that all participants continued to dem-
onstrate mastery at the conclusion of the school
year. Because educators often do not have the
resources (time, additional help) to supervise
individual students who receive remedial interven-
tions (Shriver, 2007), the minimal time invest-
ment required to produce the materials for this
effective, low-tech intervention (i.e., approximately
2 hr) is a significant advantage. In addition, once
recordings and worksheets are constructed, they
can be reused or reproduced. However, to increase
teachers’ confidence that TN procedures can be
applied and sustained in their classrooms, future
research should determine if they can be applied
without the high levels of supervision provided
during the current study.

The current procedures can be conceptualized
as an automated variation of a constant prompt-
delay procedure (Wolery et al., 1992). With
constant prompt delay, there is a controlling

TAPED NUMBERS INTERVENTION 439

prompt (the numbers produced by the tape) that
follows a task direction (the tone signals the start
of a number-identification trial). Previous re-
search has explored computer-assisted instruc-

tion using prompt-delay procedures (see Kos-
cinski & Gast, 1993), which has the potential to
be extended to young students with deficient
number-identification repertoires. Although

Figure 1. Percentage of numbers identified correctly by the four participants during the assessment sessions across
baseline, intervention, and maintenance phases. Supplemental intervention procedures for Carlos included feedback (F),
overcorrection (O), and reinforcement (R).

440 KATHERINE R. KROHN et al.

Hitchcock and Noonan (2000) found computer-
assisted instruction with a constant prompt-delay
procedure to be superior to comparable teacher-
initiated instruction, teachers were needed to
facilitate the preschool students’ access to and
use of the computer. Thus, the low-tech TN
intervention may be as effective as a computer-
assisted intervention in terms of necessary teacher
resources.

Despite the strong and positive effects of TN
on number identification for three of the
participants, there are some limitations worth
noting. A primary limitation is the absence of
data on responding during the taped interven-
tion sessions, which might help to discern the
mechanisms responsible for behavior change.
For example, it is unclear whether active
responding was necessary to produce treatment
effects or whether learning was simply the result
of repeated exposure to the correct answer. Peer
influence also was not accounted for in the
current study; therefore, the contributions of
the game-like structure, choral responding, and
peer modeling to intervention effectiveness are
unknown. Delivering the TN intervention in
isolation or in a group format with headphones
may allow future research on the potential
impact of peer modeling or motivation to
compete with peers. Finally, regarding Carlos’s
supplemental procedures, a component analysis
might have been beneficial to determine which
factors were essential in facilitating accuracy.

REFERENCES

Bliss, S. L., Skinner, C. H., & Adams, R. (2006).
Enhancing an English language learning fifth-grade
student’s sight-word reading with a time-delay taped-
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Chard, D. J., Baker, S. K., Clarke, B., Jungjohann, K.,
Davis, K., & Smolkowski, K. (2008). Preventing early
mathematics difficulties: The feasibility of a rigorous
kindergarten mathematics curriculum. Learning Dis-
ability Quarterly, 31, 11–20.

Clarke, B., & Shinn, M. R. (2004). A preliminary
investigation into the identification and development
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Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Compton, D. L., Bryant, J. D.,
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Gersten, R., Jordan, N. C., & Flojo, J. R. (2005). Early
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Hitchcock, C. H., & Noonan, M. J. (2000). Computer-
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Klibanoff, R. S., Levine, S. C., Huttenlocher, J., Vasilyeva,
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Received November 23, 2010
Final acceptance October 31, 2011
Action Editor, Jennifer Austin

TAPED NUMBERS INTERVENTION 441

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