Posted: April 24th, 2025

COM 3471- Discussion Post 4

 Read Chapter 11

 Find a thread, topic or hashtag on Twitter, Instagram or Facebook (or other social media site) in which there appears to be dominant political opinions or trends. In a discussion post, analyze those trends, look at broader public opinions on the issue, and analyze the differences between the two (the thread, topic or hashtag and the broader public opinions) based on what research has found. 

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Cite Articles and CH. 11

10/26/15, 6:10 PMQuestioning the network: The year in digital media research, 2012-13 – Journalist’s Resource Journalist’s Resource

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DIGITAL DEMOCRACY, INTERNET, NEWS MEDIA, SOCIAL MEDIA

Questioning the network: The
year in digital media research,
2012-13
Tags: communication, facebook, research roundup, twitter | Last updated: February 28, 2013

Social media (Creative Commons)

As part of our ongoing collaboration with Nieman Journalism
Lab, we’ve rounded up the latest in digital- and media-
oriented scholarship — picking highlights from disciplines
such as computer science, political science, journalism
research and communications. (Note: this article was first
published at Nieman Lab, and is now archived here in full.)

The range of social media research produced in 2012 has
been wide and diverse: from what works on Twitter to
explorations of meme “virality”; from Facebook’s power to

motivate to the hidden dynamics of friend networks; from SMS power in the Arab uprising to
the questionable creep of social “Big Data.” We offer this list with the usual disclaimer: Our
selection is meant to be useful, not definitive. Missing from this list is a lot of great scholarship,
including analysis of bullying in a networked world, as well as much more on how social media
is changing the way we participate in politics.

Here are 10 papers from 2012 worth considering for deeper analysis:

“Who Gives a Tweet? Evaluating Microblog Content Value”: Paper from Carnegie
Mellon University, MIT, the University of Southampton, and Georgia Tech for the
Computer Supported Cooperative Work conference.The researchers analyzed more than
43,000 ratings of tweets from 1,443 users and sorted the tweets themselves into broad
content categories: Question to Followers, Information Sharing, Self-Promotion, Random
Thought, Opinion/Complaint, Me Now, Conversation, or Presence Maintenance. They
found that only 36 percent of the rated tweets were considered worth reading. “Given
that users actively choose to follow these accounts, it is striking that so few of the tweets

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/digital-democracy

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/internet

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/news-media

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/social-media

http://journalistsresource.org/tag/communication

http://journalistsresource.org/tag/facebook

http://journalistsresource.org/tag/research-roundup

http://journalistsresource.org/tag/twitter

http://www.niemanlab.org/2012/12/questioning-the-network-the-year-in-social-media-research/

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/education/federal-state-anti-bullying-legislation-laws

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/internet/research-internet-effects-politics-key-studies

http://www.cs.cmu.edu/%7Epandre/pubs/whogivesatweet-cscw2012

http://www.cscw2012.org/

http://journalistsresource.org/

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are actively liked,” the researchers note.The most-liked categories of tweets were
Questions to Followers, Information Sharing, and Self-Promotion. The least popular:
Presence Maintenance (“Hello Twitter!”), Conversation, and Me Now (the tweeter’s
current mood or status).The authors conclude with a list of “best practices” for Twitter
content: “[Posters should] embed more context in tweets (and be less cryptic); add extra
commentary, especially if retweeting a common news source; don’t overuse hashtags and
use direct messages (DMs) rather than @mentions if more appropriate; happy sentiments
are valued and ‘whining’ is disliked, and questions should use a unique hashtag so
followers can keep track of the conversation.”

“Structural Diversity in Social Contagion”: Study from Cornell University and
Facebook published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.The
researchers analyze the patterns of approximately 10 million Facebook users and their
networks and find that the diversity of users’ networks is strongly related to engagement
levels. More active Facebook users have friends on the site spanning numerous social
circles: “Simply counting connected components leads to a muddled view of predicted
engagement […] However, extending the notion of diversity according to any of the
definitions above suffices to provide positive predictors of future long-term
engagement.”The researchers conclude that “these findings suggest an alternate
perspective for recruitment to political causes, the promotion of health practices and
marketing; to convince individuals to change their behavior, it may be less important that
they receive many endorsements than that they receive the message from multiple
directions.”

“Tweeting Is Believing? Understanding Microblog Credibility Perceptions”:
Paper from Carnegie Mellon University and Microsoft Research for the Computer
Supported Cooperative Work conference.The researchers, examining survey and
experimental data, found that perceptions of an author’s influence, topical expertise, and
reputation all enhance a tweet’s credibility; other perceived markers of credibility include
the public profiles of tweeters and how often their posts are retweeted. Typical users are
not unduly concerned with the credibility of tweets on celebrity news and restaurant
reviews, but are concerned with the veracity of breaking news and political content.
Users tend to most trust tweets from individuals they follow and trending topics listed on
Twitter, and are very concerned about the credibility of tweets they find through Twitter
searches and online search engines.While the perceived credibility of a tweet was linked
to its author, it was not associated with the truthfulness of the tweet itself. This held true
regardless of the assessor’s experience with Twitter; in fact, more experienced users
typically rated tweets as more credible overall. “Those with more experience with a given
technology view it as a more credible information source” than those with less
experience, the researchers note.

“News and the Overloaded Consumer: Factors Influencing Information
Overload Among News Consumers”: Study from the University of Texas at Austin
published in Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking.The researchers analyze
survey data from more than 750 news consumers to look at their patterns of reading and

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/internet/structural-diversity-social-contagion-facebook

http://research.microsoft.com/apps/pubs/default.aspx?id=155374

http://www.niemanlab.org/2012/11/how-we-read-not-what-we-read-may-be-contributing-to-our-information-overload/

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viewing, and to assess which platforms and formats make people feel most/least
overwhelmed by the information deluge. The findings suggest that people feel
overwhelmed on platforms such as Facebook or e-readers, but, interestingly, not
necessarily on platforms such as Twitter or YouTube. Over all, the study suggests that it
is not the number of news outlets that consumers follow that creates the feeling of
“overload,” but rather the platform and corresponding manner in which news is
consumed.

“Misplaced Confidences: Privacy and the Control Paradox”: Study from Carnegie
Mellon published in Social Psychological and Personality Science.The researchers
conducted three survey-based experiments with more than 450 participants from a North
American university on the release or accessibility of personal information online. The
goal was ultimately to see how, in practice, humans respond to increased privacy
controls.“Paradoxically,” the researchers note, “participants were more likely to allow the
publication of information about them and more likely to disclose more information of a
sensitive nature, as long as they were explicitly, instead of implicitly, given control over
its publication.”They stress that they are not advocating that individuals should
necessarily disclose less information online — but they underscore that the propensity to
share more is influenced by structural factors such as site controls: “Control has become
a code word,” the scholars write, “employed both by legislators and government bodies in
proposals for enhanced privacy production [but] higher levels of control may not always
service the ultimate goal of enhancing privacy.”

“A 61-Million-Person Experiment in Social Influence and Political
Mobilization”: Study from the University of California, San Diego, and Facebook,
published in Nature.The researchers tested the idea that voting behavior can be
significantly influenced by messages on Facebook. On Election Day 2010 — the
Congressional midterms — 60,055,176 Facebook users were shown messages at the top
of their news feeds that encouraged them to vote, pointed to nearby polling places,
offered a place to click “I Voted” and displayed images of select friends who had already
voted (the “social message”). Two smaller groups — each about 600,000 people — were
given either voting-encouragement messages but no data about friends’ behavior (an
“informational message”) or were not given any voting-related messages.The data, the
scholars write, “suggest that the Facebook social message increased turnout directly by
about 60,000 voters and indirectly through social contagion by another 280,000 voters,
for a total of 340,000 additional votes.” Strong ties between friends proved much more
influential than weak ties: “Close friends exerted about four times more influence on the
total number of validated voters mobilized than the message itself […] Online
mobilization works because it primarily spreads through strong-tie networks that probably
exist offline but have an online representation.”

“Why Most Facebook Users Get More Than They Give”: Report from the Pew
Internet & American Life Project.The researchers find that extremely active users have an
outsized impact on the Facebook experience of everyone in a network. Approximately 20
to 30 percent of Facebook users are considered “power users.” Because of them, the

http://spp.sagepub.com/content/early/2012/08/08/1948550612455931

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/elections/facebook-61-million-person-experiment-social-influence-political-mobilization

http://pewresearch.org/pubs/2185/facebook-like-button-tagging-photos-messaging-friending-friends

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researchers note, the “average Facebook user receives friend requests, receives personal
messages, is tagged in photos, and receives feedback in terms of ‘likes’ at a higher
frequency than they contribute.” Moreover, “At two degrees of separation (friends-of-
friends), Facebook users in our sample can on average reach 156,569 other Facebook
users.”Within the sample, the most influential power user could reach nearly 8 million
other Facebook users through friends-of-friends, while the median user could reach
31,170 people. Other report findings relate to the offline profile of users: “There is a
statistically positive correlation between frequency of tagging Facebook friends in photos,
as well as being added to a Facebook group, and knowing people with more diverse
backgrounds off of Facebook.” In addition, the more active a Facebook user is, the more
likely he or she has attended a meeting or political rally: “Heavy Facebook users were
much more likely to attend political rallies and meetings, to try to influence someone they
know to vote for a specific candidate, and to vote or intend to vote.”

“Competition Among Memes in a World with Limited Attention”: Study from
Indiana University and Northeastern University published in Scientific Reports.The
researchers use a complex statistical model to investigate the “mechanisms of
competition” among memes and “how they shape the spread of information.” Ultimately,
the findings suggest that the virality of memes may less controllable or explicable than
assumed.The scholars compared patterns in their model with actual Twitter patterns and
found strong similarities. This suggests that viral memes can happen without any of the
usual explanations — influential user involvement; quality, appeal, or cleverness; or
outside world or media events driving attention to certain concepts. The key mechanism
appears to be that, because users have limited attention, some “memes survive at the
expense of others.”The authors do not assert that “intrinsic meme appeal” has no
importance in driving viral trends, but the fact that similar viral effects can occur without
external impetus has important implications: “This appears as an arresting conclusion
that makes information epidemics quite different from the basic modeling and conceptual
framework of biological epidemics.”

“Critical Questions for Big Data”: Paper from Microsoft Research, New York
University, Berkman Center, University of New South Wales published in Information,
Communication & Society.With data mining techniques increasingly being used across
industries — and with social media data a big part of this — the researchers take a hard
look at the “Big Data” phenomenon. They note that it is playing out in several
dimensions: It is about “maximizing computation power and algorithmic accuracy to
gather, analyze, link, and compare large data sets”; it is also about “drawing on large
data sets to identify patterns in order to make economic, social, technical, and legal
claims.” Behind all of this, the researchers note with skepticism, is the “widespread belief
that large data sets offer a higher form of intelligence and knowledge that can generate
insights that were previously impossible, with the aura of truth, objectivity, and accuracy.”

Various studies on global protest, the Arab Spring.A lot of new research (some
rounded up here) has focused on social media tools used in the service of protest and
political activism in challenging circumstances. From the Arab uprising to other global hot

http://www.nature.com/srep/2012/120329/srep00335/full/srep00335.html?WT.mc_id=FBK_SciReports

http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369118X.2012.678878

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/international/human-rights/global-protests-social-media-research-roundup

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/international/human-rights/global-protests-social-media-research-roundup

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/international/human-rights/new-media-sms-conflict-after-the-arab-spring

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spots, scholars are analyzing the outcomes. Many studies provide interesting insights
while acknowledging the real limitations of available data.Recent noteworthy papers in
this area include: “Social Media and the Decision to Participate in Political
Protest: Observations From Tahrir Square,” in the Journal of Communication; and
“Blogs and Bullets II: New Media and Conflict After the Arab Spring,” from the
U.S. Institute of Peace. For useful background data in this space, also see the Pew Global
Attitudes Project’s December report “Social Networking Popular Across Globe.”

A parting thought: Journalists interested in exploring this field further might consider following
some of journals in the field, including Information, Communication and Society, New Media
and Society, Journal of Information Technology and Politics, Political Communication, Policy and
Internet, and First Monday.

Tags: research roundup, communication, Facebook, Twitter

Writer: John Wihbey | February 28, 2013

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/internet/social-media-protest-egypt-tahrir-square

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/international/human-rights/new-media-sms-conflict-after-the-arab-spring

http://www.pewglobal.org/2012/12/12/social-networking-popular-across-globe/

http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/rics20/current

http://nms.sagepub.com/

http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/witp20

http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/upcp20/current

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/%28ISSN%291944-2866

http://www.firstmonday.org/

http://journalistsresource.org/author/john-wihbey

10/26/15, 6:10 PMPew Research: Twitter reaction to events often at odds with overall public opinion – Journalist’s Resource Journalist’s Resource

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ADS, PUBLIC OPINION, CAMPAIGN MEDIA, DIGITAL DEMOCRACY, NEWS MEDIA, SOCIAL

MEDIA

Pew Research: Twitter
reaction to events often at
odds with overall public
opinion
Tags: technology, twitter | Last updated: March 5, 2013

(Wikimedia)

Examining past chapters in American public discourse,
political scientists put forward the thesis that there were
frequently two public conversations — one at the elite level,
and one at the mass level. With the rise of cable news and
the blogosphere, new dynamics were observed, with
partisan “echo chambers” forming around liberal and
conservative communities and “cyberbalkanization”
becoming a new norm. With Twitter, however, novel
dynamics may be emerging; the platform appears to be

fostering dialogue that is often different in subject matter and direction, and does not
consistently track along the previously established lines of elite/mass or left/right.

The degree to which Twitter may diverge from other mediums — and diverge from more
general citizen sentiment — is important to acknowledge, particularly as more media members
gather information and frame their stories based on experiences and conversations on Twitter.
Some new technologies are even trying to capture and quantify social media patterns —
sometimes called “sentiment analysis” — and make this area more scientific. In any case, news
outlets now routinely report about Twitter reaction as a key data point for understanding and
interpreting events.

A 2013 report from the Pew Research Center, “Twitter Reaction to Events Often at Odds with
Overall Public Opinion,” analyzes the conversations around eight major public events in 2012-13
and compares negative/positive reactions on the microblogging platform to citizen opinion

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/ads-public-opinion

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/campaign-media

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/digital-democracy

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/news-media

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/social-media

http://journalistsresource.org/tag/technology

http://journalistsresource.org/tag/twitter

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/internet/research-internet-effects-politics-key-studies

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/campaign-media/us-government-twitter-research

http://www.niemanlab.org/2013/01/feelings-nothing-more-than-feelings-the-measured-rise-of-sentiment-analysis-in-journalism/

http://www.pewresearch.org/2013/03/04/twitter-reaction-to-events-often-at-odds-with-overall-public-opinion/

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reflected in national polls.

The study’s findings include:

On issues such as a federal court ruling on California’s ban on same-sex marriage or Mitt
Romney’s presidential debate performance, the mix of positive-negative reactions differed
substantially from opinion registered in national polls. In both cases, Twitter reactions
leaned more liberal and were not representative of public opinion generally; Twitter
sentiment is sometimes more pro-Democratic Party or liberal.

The salient feature of Twitter during election season was the tone it seemed to foster:
The “overall negativity on Twitter over the course of the campaign stood out. For both
candidates, negative comments exceeded positive comments by a wide margin
throughout the fall campaign season.”

In the cases of President Obama’s 2013 Inaugural and State of the Union addresses — as
well as sentiments toward now Secretary of State John Kerry — the reaction on Twitter
was more negative than national polls indicated.

In the cases of the Supreme Court’s ruling on the Affordable Care Act and the selection of
Paul Ryan as the Republication vice presidential nominee, sentiment on Twitter was in line
with national polling.

As of 2012, Twitter’s demographics skewed younger (50% of users were under 30) and
more liberal (57% leaned Democratic.)

The year-long study concludes that the “reaction to political events on Twitter reflects a
combination of the unique profile of active Twitter users and the extent to which events engage
different communities and draw the comments of active users. While this provides an
interesting look into how communities of interest respond to different circumstances, it does not
reliably correlate with the overall reaction of adults nationwide.”

A related study, “Birds of a Feather Tweet Together: Integrating Network and Content Analyses
to Examine Cross-Ideology Exposure on Twitter,” found that Twitter posters gravitated towards
tweets and fellow posters who shared their ideological leanings: “On Twitter, political talk is
highly partisan, where users’ clusters are characterized by homogeneous views and are linked to
information sources.” These dynamics likely “reinforce in-group and out-group affiliations, as
literally, users form separate political groups on Twitter.”

Tags: Twitter, technology, social media

Writer: John Wihbey | March 5, 2013

Citation: Mitchell, Amy; Hitlin, Paul. “Twitter Reaction to Events Often at Odds with Overall
Public Opinion,” Pew Researcher Center, March 2013.

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/internet/network-content-analyses-ideology-exposure-twitter

http://journalistsresource.org/author/john-wihbey

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10/26/15, 6:10 PMBirds of a feather tweet together: Examining cross-ideology exposure on Twitter – Journalist’s Resource Journalist’s Resource

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DIGITAL DEMOCRACY, INTERNET, NEWS MEDIA, POLARIZATION, SOCIAL MEDIA

Birds of a feather tweet
together: Examining cross-
ideology exposure on Twitter
Tags: communication, technology, twitter | Last updated: January 31, 2013

(iStock)

Once dismissed as a passing tech fad, Twitter has become
an important platform globally, influencing debates and
shaping political upheaval, and providing a critical
information and broadcast network for journalists and
communicators of all kinds. With this rise in profile, Twitter
has also become a key area of focus for social scientists
trying to assess the impact of digital media on political
discourse and belief formation. Past studies have analyzed
ideological dynamics and the granular mechanisms of the

network to determine whether Twitter fosters further polarization, or increased
“cyberbalkanization.” New research continues to be published that can help media members
become more effective communicators and better interpreters of the structure of dialogue on
Twitter — and see it as constructed space, with inherent biases. The research suggests it’s
worth maintaining a skeptical view of apparent trends and information quality, even as new
data-driven fields such as “sentiment analysis” strive to make this area more scientific.

A 2013 study from the University of Georgia and the Connected Action Consulting Group
published in the Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, “Birds of a Feather Tweet
Together: Integrating Network and Content Analyses to Examine Cross-Ideology Exposure on
Twitter,” explores the extent to which political interactions on Twitter cross ideological lines. The
researchers collected data on the keywords “Tea Party,” “Obama,” “DNC,” “GOP,” “unemployment
benefits,” “global warming,” “deficit,” “immigration reform,” “healthcare reform,” and “stimulus
money” on August 17, 2010, in the run-up to the 2010 midterm elections. An analysis captured
the tweeter’s extended network and the political contexts of the tweets. More than 2,100
Twitter messages were analyzed and sorted into 30 distinct clusters of affiliation.

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/digital-democracy

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/internet

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/news-media

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/polarization

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/social-media

http://journalistsresource.org/tag/communication

http://journalistsresource.org/tag/technology

http://journalistsresource.org/tag/twitter

http://journalistsresource.org/tag/twitter

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/society/internet/research-arab-spring-internet-key-studies

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/campaign-media/us-government-twitter-research

http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/elections/political-polarization-twitter

http://www.niemanlab.org/2013/01/whats-new-in-digital-scholarship-twitter-philosophies-dying-on-facebook-and-the-age-of-mobile-media/

http://www.niemanlab.org/2013/01/feelings-nothing-more-than-feelings-the-measured-rise-of-sentiment-analysis-in-journalism/

http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jcc4.12001/abstract

http://journalistsresource.org/

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Key study findings include:

The data show that “on Twitter, political talk is highly partisan, where users’ clusters are
characterized by homogeneous views and are linked to information sources….” These
dynamics likely “reinforce in-group and out-group affiliations, as literally, users form
separate political groups on Twitter.”

The more the tweets in a cluster reflected a political perspective, the more ideologically
one-sided its content tended to be. “Politically active voices, particularly younger voters,
who use the Internet to express their opinions are moving away from neutral news sites
in favor of those that match their own political views.”

Some keywords had separate clusters of users across the political spectrum. “Messages
associated with global warming, deficit, unemployment benefits, Tea Party, Obama, GOP,
and DNC, were mainly conservative or mainly liberal.” Only one cluster of the 30
examined had very similar percentages of conservative (18.9%) and liberal (18.1%)
sentiments.

Content and links relating to the keywords “immigration reform,” “stimulus money” and
“healthcare reform” typically did not support a specific political orientation. “The exposure
to ideological diverse opinions via these [link] sources was limited, as they appeared to
be neutral.”

A high percentage of liberal (82%) and conservative (75%) Twitter messages linked to
sites with similar ideological content. “Conservative messages… were slightly more likely
than liberal ones to link to sources with articles without clear political orientation.”

Conservatives (60%) were more likely to link to conservative grassroots sites than liberals
(50%); liberal media sites were more popular destinations for liberal Twitter links (23%)
than for conservatives (9%).

The authors point out that the ahistorical and ephemeral nature of Twitter requires that a user
commit to frequent updates to form a more nuanced understanding of an issue. They also note
that individuals may interact with friends online who do not share their political persuasion, but
that these encounters do not lead to “meaningful cross-ideological interaction.”

For a broader sense of this area of scholarship, see this 2012 research roundup, “Questioning
the Network: The Year in Social Media Research,” published at the Nieman Journalism Lab.

Tags: twitter, social media, technology, communication

Writer: Margaret Weigel | January 31, 2013

Citation: Himelboim, Itai; McCreery, Stephen; Smith, Marc. “Birds of a Feather Tweet
Together: Integrating Network and Content Analyses to Examine Cross-Ideology Exposure on

http://www.niemanlab.org/2012/12/questioning-the-network-the-year-in-social-media-research/

http://journalistsresource.org/author/margaret-weigel

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Twitter.” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, January 2013, Vol. 18, No. 2, 40-60.
doi: 10.1111/jcc4.12001.