Posted: February 26th, 2023

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D#3: Core Assessment: Global Economy (Eastern Hemisphere) THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

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Africa has been characterized as the Dark Continent, that it is, it is accused of being on the periphery of the ancient and medieval worlds' economies.

 

Using the 

Geography Power Point 

 Download Geography Power Point 

and the Power Points on  4b 

Medieval West Africa (

 Download Medieval West Africa (

Trans-Saharan Trade, Empires of Ghana, Mali, & Songhai, Mansa Kankan Musa, and Introduction of Islam), And

4c East and Southern Africa

 Download 4c East and Southern Africa

,  Discuss and PROVE that Africa was Central to Global Trade in the Eastern Hemisphere during the  MEDIEVAL PERIOD which is AD300 through AD 1325.

TIMELINE: from AD 300 through AD 1400

THESIS STATEMENT:  Africa was central to Global Trade during the Medieval Period AD 300-1400.

PROOF:  Must include Date, Location, Activity, Global Trade includes Ideas and Products transmitted to Africa from the Eastern Hemisphere AND Ideas and Products transmitted From Africa to the Eastern Hemisphere showing HOW Africa was Central to Global Trade in the Eastern Hemisphere during the Medieval Period.

1 TRADE POINT #1:  AD 300 Trade from the West African Interior to the North African Coast (Kingdoms/Empires Ghana, Mali, Songhai) HOW does Ghana CONTROL the Trans-Saharan Trade  

2 IDEAS/CULTURE POINTS #1-#4:  INTRODUCTION OF ISLAM (Religion created in AD 622):  HOW, WHEN & WHY? to Axum, HOW, WHEN, AND WHY? to North Africa, HOW, WHEN, AND WHY? to the West African Interior, and HOW, WHEN, AND WHY? to the East African Trading City States (WHAT is a TRADE DIASPORA?);  WHO is MANSA KANKAN MUSA c. 1324-1325?  What did he do?

3.  IDEAS/CULTURE POINT #5:  Use of the Arabic Alphabet (based on the 22-consonant Phoenician Alphabet) in West and North Africa.

4. IDEAS/CULTURE POINT #6: HOW, WHEN, WHY?  Creation of a NEW Language:  Ki-Swahili  in East Africa

5.  TRADE POINT #2:  Trade from the interior to the Southern African Coast (Kingdom/Empire Zimbabwe) c. AD 1000 Gold trade through Sofola

The 

Assessment Power Point

 Download Assessment Power Point

tells the story. (If you cannot open the Link, Go to Module #1, DOCUMENTS, Last item Before Links/Videos. )

Due by midnight February 13, 2023

Example Below

1 TRADE POINT #1:  AD 300 Trade from the West African Interior to the North African Coast (Kingdoms/Empires Ghana, Mali, Songhai) HOW does Ghana CONTROL the Trans-Saharan Trade  

- As of AD 300, Ghana featured Soninke-speakers and established their empire at the headwaters of the Senegal and Niger Rivers. Ghana controlled trade in their region by taxing travelers heading north via gold, and those heading south were taxed via salt. Berber-speaking traders imported salt to the empire of Ghana and took gold back up north to the Mediterranean region. This was all done via the Camel Caravan Trade. This country was also the owner of all slaves through old-world slavery. This type of slavery meant that if a person was captured during war or conflict, that person became a slave.

 - Mali was founded by Sunidata Keita, a Maninka-speaker and non-Muslim, in AD 1235. This empire was a successor state to Ghana and controlled the population similarly through marriage or hostage diplomacy. Where Ghana did not control the salt and gold fields of Boure and Banbuk, Mali did. Ghana was only in control of the trade routes to and from the fields. Traders, urbanites, royals, and some rural farmers converted to Islam as it grew in West Africa. Mali eventually fell due to internal revolts over who was the successor to the kingship.

 - A successor state to Mali and Ghana, the Songhai empire lasted from AD 1400-1591. Following the same population control as Ghana and Mali, Songhai was the largest of the three kingdoms, with its capital at Gao (AD 800), with the central trade city being Timbuktu. Sunni Ali Ber, a Songhai-speaker, was caught in hostage diplomacy and used his knowledge of the falling Mali Empire to usher in the Songhai Empire. Askia Mohammed Toure I, a Muslim Soninke-speaker, then overthrow him. His sons later governed, with the last being Askia Ishaq I. All Askia (Emperors) declared that all rural people must become Muslim during this time. In 1592, Sognhai found itself in a civil war which prompted Morocco to send its army into the fray to control the gold fields of West Africa. Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur failed in his conquest and returned to Morocco in 1661 after realizing the impossibility of controlling the areas and the supporting logistics necessary. From 1591 to 1901, many Askias attempted to continue the traditions of the old empire, but they had to be re-established. In 1901, French colonial forces conquered the state and were placed under colonial rule.

 

2 IDEAS/CULTURE POINTS #1-#4:  INTRODUCTION OF ISLAM (Religion created in AD 622):  HOW, WHEN & WHY? to Axum, HOW, WHEN, AND WHY? to North Africa, HOW, WHEN, AND WHY? to the West African Interior, and HOW, WHEN, AND WHY? to the East African Trading City States (WHAT is a TRADE DIASPORA?);  WHO is MANSA KANKAN MUSA c. 1324-1325? What did he do?

- In Circa AD 622, Mohammed sends a colony of his people on a journey across the Red Sea into Axum to protect his New One God Religion (God of Abraham). This spread of Islam is done via migration. Around ad 647, Arabs began a conquest against the Berbers, which finished in the eighth century (c. AD 750). Though conquest is a form of spreading religion and culture, the Berbers were not converted. They were, however, taxed for not being Muslim. Ergo, Islam gained new supporters and followers as many wanted to avoid paying the tax. However, the Arab's main focus was converting Berber children to Islam. Converted Berber traders and non-converted Berber traders (who were accompanied by Muslim Clerics) continued the spread of Islam to West Africa via trade from c. AD 750 to c. 1200. About the East African Trading City-States, Islam was brought by Arab settlers who married into ruling families. Lastly, the Trade diaspora is where traders maintained two families. Traders had a family at their place of origin and another in the trading states, which they married into.

 - Mansa Kankan Musa was a Muslim who performed a pilgrimage from AD 1324 to 1325 from Timbuktu to Mecca. He was the ninth Mansa, or King, of the Mali Empire. His expedition featured a caravan of 80-100 camels whose cargo mainly consisted of gold. Roughly 500 slaves accompanied Mansa Musa on his journey, and they each carried a gold staff weighing about 4 pounds. The supporting team of Mansa Musa’s travels equaled over 1000 people; for every top made, gold was given to the people. His action depreciated the value of gold in the Mediterranean Basin for ten years. During his travels, Europeans grew interested in his actions as gold was their currency, and Mansa Musa indirectly showed that Mali had abundant minerals. Upon his arrival home, he brought back Arab and Muslim clerics to teach Black Africans to become Muslim clerics themselves at what is known as Sankore University in Timbuktu.

 

3. IDEAS/CULTURE POINT #5: Use the Arabic Alphabet (based on the 22-consonant Phoenician Alphabet) in West and North Africa.

- The Arabic Alphabet was created in AD 350 as a spin of the Phoenician Alphabet of 1000 BC. Ghana grew a considerable interest in this writing system as Berber traders brought it to West Africa in the eighth century along with Muslim Clerics. The empire then hired clerics to keep records for them. Arab Clerics themselves could not live in Kumbi Saleh, the capital of Ghana, because a non-Muslim could not rule them. Therefore, they created a Muslim version of Kumbi Saleh. The king of the Ghana empire was not Muslim, but many of the population converted to Islam to be part of international trade dealings. In addition to being part of trade wealth, many converted for increased literacy.

 

4. IDEAS/CULTURE POINT #6: HOW, WHEN, WHY? Creation of a NEW Language:  Ki-Swahili  in East Africa

- Ki-Swahili is a blend of Arabic and African languages, meaning People of the Coast. As traders from the east came to East Africa, they were essentially forced to stay in the city-states until the winds blew away from Africa beginning in April. Therefore, languages and cultures collided, paving the way for the Ki-Swahili language. Arab settlers who married into ruling families of the east also contributed to the creation of the new language. These ruling families converted to Islam to take advantage of the growing international trade. In Kilwa, Arabic and Ki-Swahili speakers dominated the region with wealthy merchants by acting as advisors.

 

5. TRADE POINT #2: Trade from the interior to the Southern African Coast (Kingdom/Empire Zimbabwe) c. AD 1000 Gold trade through Sofola

- The Zimbabwe Empire lasted from 11th -14th centuries AD. Founded by Shona speakers, the term “Zimbabwe” means stone enclosure. Kilwa and Zimbabwe conducted trade with one another through the state of Sofola. Though Zimbabwe’s economy featured cattle keeping, agriculture, woven imported cloth, and iron, the most sought-after business was gold mining and gold smithing for jewelry. Gold items dealt in trades were found in the Indian Ocean Basin trade. Kilwa became the most important of the 40 East African City-States because of the gold trade business conducted with Great Zimbabwe.

Edited by 

James Buco

 on Feb 11 at 1:31pm

HISTORIC AFRICA

The Medieval World

West African Interior

Trade through North African Coast

TRANSMISSION OF CULTURE TRADE: Products and Ideas/Culture (Language, Writing System, Religion, etc.) MIGRATION: People move from one region to another taking with them their Products and Ideas CONQUEST: One Government conquers a group of people forcing on them their Products and Ideas MEDIEVAL TRADE WEST AFRICAN INTERIOR TO THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA BASIN: THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE SPREAD OF CULTURE FROM THE ARABIAN PENINSULA TO NORTH AFRICA AND WEST AFRICA AFRICA AND THE WORLD ECONOMY MY POINT IN THE DISCUSSION #3, And the Essay: INTERIOR TRADE TO THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN: TRADE POINT #1 Products from the African forest and savanna reached the Mediterranean Sea through the north south gold salt trade (AD300 Kingdom of Ghana trading with the Mediterranean) TAXATION OF CAMEL CARAVANS TRAVELING SOUTH IN SALT AND TRAVELING NORTH IN GOLD. TRANS-SAHARN TRADE CULTURE POINT #5: Use of Arabic Writing System based on the 22-consonant Phoenician Alphabet AD 350. MEDITERRANEAN BASIN AND WEST ASIAN/ARABIAN PENINSULA TRADE AND SPREAD OF CULTURE: SPREAD OF CULTURE—SPREAD OF ISLAM CULTURE POINTS #2-3 Introduction of Islam to (2) North Africa by conquest and (3) West Africa by Trade (begins c. AD 650) Empire of Mali: Mansa Kankan Musa makes his pilgrimage (AD 1324-1325) and alerts the Europeans to potential gold for coinage TRANS-SAHARN TRADE Interior Trade into the Mediterranean Sea Basin EMPIRE OF GHANA CONTROLS THE TRANS SAHARAN TRADE Trade with the Mediterranean Basin: Berber-speaking traders brought salt SOUTH to the Kingdom/Empire and took gold NORTH via CAMEL CARAVAN TRADE aka The TRANS SAHARAN TRADE (SHORT ANSWER #17) Ghana did not own the gold fields of Banbuk (in present-day Senegal) or Boure (in present-day Guinea). It only controlled the trade routes to and from the fields The Empire of Ghana CONTROLLED THE TRADE BY TAXING THE TRADERS TRAVELING NORTH (in Gold) AND THEN TAXED THEM AGAIN TRAVELING SOUTH (in salt) Trade Point #1 The Ghana did own all gold nuggets—anyone could own gold dust CAMELS: THE SHIPS OF THE DESERT CAMELS: THE SHIPS OF THE DESERT Camel introduced by the Romans for transportation in the 1st century AD The Dromedary Camel—One Hump Travel 10+ days without water Nostrils can close against the sand Two sets of eye lashes to close against the sand Feet splay to support weight in the sand Camel caravans could be 5 to 2,000 camels Trip takes 70-90 days using the stars to guide the traveler Oases were refreshment centers TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE THE DESERT BRIDGE MILO RVER (Tributary to the Niger River) KANKAN TRADE CITY ON THE MILO RIVER—MY HOME IN GUINEA BOURE GOLD (Boure is today Siguiri, Guinea) KANO CLOTH KANO (today Northern Nigeria HAUSA SPEAKERS CREATE CLOTH NAMED FOR THEIR CITY SHEA BUTTER TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE This photo is taken outside Timbuktu 1993 The Tuareg (Berber-speakers) are known as the Blue Men of the Desert because the Indigo Dye rubs off on the skin The Trans-Saharan Caravans still move products today See Video Clip Trans-Saharan Trade CAMEL CARAVAN The Cheesecloth-like fabric keeps the wearer from breathing in sand in the air TUAREG WOMEN The Tuareg are a Matrilineal Society CAMEL CARAVAN CAMEL CARAVAN CAMEL CARAVAN SPREAD OF CULTURE SPREAD OF ISLAM AD 622 to AXUM via Migration AD647-700 North Africa via Conquest AD700 West African Interior via Trade SPREAD OF ISLAM MOHAMMED (AD570-632) ISLAM BECOMES A RELIGION IN AD622 ISLAM SPREADS ON THE ARABIAN PENINSULA IN THE 7TH CENTURY Short Answer #14 AXUM: Mohammed sends a colony across the Red Sea to Axum to protect his New One God Religion (God of Abraham) c. AD 622 via Migration CULTURE POINT #1 NORTH AFRICA: The ARABS began their CONQUEST of the Berbers of NORTH AFRICA in AD 647 and finished in the 8TH century via Conquest CULTURE POINT #2 The conquest did NOT force Islam on the Berbers--Instead they Taxed anyone who was not a Muslim Many CONVERTED to avoid the TAX; The Muslims knew this was a false conversion--they weren't really interested in the adults; They were interested in all the Children who MUST now become Muslim WEST AFRICA: The Berbers carried Islam into WEST AFRICA through TRADE bringing with them Muslim Clerics who showed off their Trade Wares AND Writing System AD 700 via Trade CULTURE POINT #3 CULTURE POINT #1: ISLAM ARRIVES TO AXUM AD 622 Mohammed escapes from Mecca to Medina where he established his first Mosque c. 622 Mohammed sends a colony across the Red Sea to Axum to protect his Religion c. 622 At the time, this coastal land was a province of Ethiopia. Ethiopia 1st practiced polytheism, 900 BC Judaism, AD 330 East Orthodox Christian which had be transmitted by Greek sailors in the Red Sea Trade Today the land is Eritrea SPREAD OF ISLAM TO THE EMPIRE OF GHANA 8th century Islam is introduced as Berber Traders bring with them International Traders from North Africa, Muslim Clerics The Ghana is interested in the technology of writing the Arabic Alphabet (Arabic alphabet created in AD350 a spin off of the Phoenician Alphabet 1000BC) CULTURE POINT #5 The Ghana Employed Arab Clerics to keep records Arab Clerics could not live in Kumbi Saleh because they cannot be ruled by a non-Muslims so they created a “twin city” of Muslim Kumbi Saleh The King did not become a Muslim but many urbanites did so that they could participate in the international trade ISLAM FOR NON-ARABIC SPEAKERS MEMORIZATION OF THE QURAN IN ARABIC SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING EMPIRE OF MALI AD1235-1460 Founded by Maninka-speaker Sunidata (Soon ja ta) Keita (kay ta) AD1235-c.1255 A Non-Muslim The Empire of Mali was a Successor State to Ghana and controlled the populations the same. Only difference is that Mali controlled salt fields and gold fields Mansa Kankan Musa (Sundiata Keita’s Grandson) was a Muslim and performed the pilgrimage AD1324-1325 (Short Answer #18) Handed out gold at each city, town, village to build Mosques And Quarnic Schools Traders, Urbanites, and now Royals become Muslims; Plus some rural farmers 24 MANSA KANKAN MUSA 80-100 camels loaded with gold 500 slaves carried gold staffs of 4 lbs. each Over 1000 people in his entourage Gave away gold at each stop—all the way to Mecca and back along the trade routes from Timbuktu Depressed the price of gold in the Mediterranean Basin for 10 years Attracted the Attention of Europeans who had made GOLD their Currency Brought back Arab, Muslim Clerics from the Al-Azhar Mosque/University to teach Black Africans to become Muslim Clerics at his new university Sankore University, Timbuktu Mali falls due to internal revolts over succession to kingship. Short Answer #18 NEW EUROPEAN INTEREST IN AFRICA The Fatimid Dinar from North Africa minted by Muslim governments Increased trade between Africa and Europe Europeans change their coins from silver and copper to gold 2/3 of the gold used in Europe came from West Africa Unification of North African Groups spread the Gold Trade Kankan Musa’s Pilgrimage focuses European interest on the Empire of Mali; how can they get access to all that gold. ROAD INTO TIMBUKTU TIMBUKTU This is a picture 1993 of the Original Tuareg Well (walled off as a part of the Timbuktu Museum) The grass House is a replica of the type of house used by the caretaker of the Well The Story: The Tuareg dug the well at a trade crossroads Any Traveler could have water from the well They had to leave someone to make sure it didn't fill in with sand The only "expendable" family member was a post-menopausal woman name Timbuktu SANKORE MOSQUE TIMBUKTU The Sankore Mosque (one of three mosques) Sahalian Architecture--the wood poles allow people to repair the erosion of the exterior walls Today it only rains once per year Today's Erosion is Wind Erosion SANKORE UNIVERSITY TIMBUKTU Part of Sankore Mosque This is Sankore University established by Mansa Kankan Musa in AD1325 Kankan Musa, a Muslim, brought back Arab Clerics (brown-skinned) from the Al-Azahar University in Cairo to create a cadre of African Clerics (black-skinned) so that Africans could learn about Islam from locals and not foreigners The University's focus was only Religion TIMBUKTU NEW WELL SHOPPING IN THE MARKET TIMBUKTU IMPORTS ALL FOOD TIMBUKTU BAKING BREAD IN TIMBUKTU Because the oven is open, sand crystals are found in the bread making it “crunchy.” AL-AZHAR MOSQUE & UNIVERSITY CAIRO (AD970) SHORT ANSWER #15 SPREAD OF ISLAM WEST AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND EMPIRES THE INLAND NIGER DELTA THE SUCCESSOR STATES OF GHANA AD300-1076 MALI AD1235-1460 SONGHAI AD1460-1581 INLAND NIGER DELTA See Geography Power Point about the formation of the two Niger Deltas The Delta's River Basin Agriculture supports the Ghana, Mali, and Songhai Empires--feeds the Royals and the Army WEST AFRICA Kingdoms/Empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai are SUCCESSOR STATES. While the leadership for each is from different ethnic groups the method of control is the same EMPIRE EXPANSION: CONQUEST Marriage Diplomacy: Those who did not want to be destroyed in war offered a royal daughter to be wed to the King so no war protecting your people and land and the King does not need to waste his resources. Positive for those marrying into the kingdom because the king may be the son of your royal daughter—special connection to your group Hostage Diplomacy: After conquest how do you keep them honest and tight with the conquerors no matter how far away they are? The King takes the firsts borns—royals, religious, highly placed—back to his palace and raise them as his own. He raises them with his own children. The hope is that when the parents die, we send them back to rule as our friends (well, that’s the plan). We find this methodology in Egypt and other kingdoms and empires across Africa EMPIRE OF GHANA SONINKE SPEAKERS SHORT ANSWER #16 EMPIRE OF GHANA AD 300 Soninke-speakers Established Kingdom that spreads into an empire in the headwaters of the Senegal and Niger Rivers. Capital at Kumbi Saleh Ghana is the Kings title: “Great Warrior” The Ghana was assisted by a Council of Ministers Ghana owned all of the slaves (old world slavery: to become a slave you are captured in war) Slaves were used as farmers in the Niger Inland Delta and as soldiers EMPIRE OF GHANA REMEMBER: Trade with the Mediterranean Basin: Berber-speaking traders brought salt to the Kingdom/Empire and took gold north CAMEL CARAVAN TRADE (SHORT ANSWER #17) Ghana did not own the gold fields of Banbuk (in present-day Senegal) or Boure (in present-day Guinea). It only controlled the trade routes to and from the fields MAJOR TRADE CITY: TIMBUKTU The Empire of Ghana CONTROLLED THE TRADE BY TAXING THE TRADERS TRAVELING NORTH (in Gold) AND THEN TAXED THEM AGAIN TRAVELING SOUTH (in salt) The Ghana did own all gold nuggets—anyone could own gold dust SPREAD OF ISLAM TO THE EMPIRE OF GHANA 8th century Islam is introduced as Berber Traders bring with them International Traders from North Africa, Muslim Clerics The Ghana is interested in the technology of writing the Arabic Alphabet (Arabic alphabet created in AD350 a spin off of the Phoenician Alphabet 1000BC) Employed Arab Clerics to keep records Arab Clerics could not live in Kumbi Saleh because the cannot be ruled by a non-Muslims so they created a “twin city” of Muslim Kumbi Saleh The King did not become a Muslim but many urbanites did so that they could participate in the international trade Ghana fell in AD1076 WHY CONVERT? WEALTH OF THE LONG-DISTANCE TRADE INTERNATIONAL TRADE—NEW PRESTIGE ITEMS LITERACY UNIVERSAL RELIGION EMPIRE OF MALI MANINKA SPEAKERS EMPIRE OF MALI AD1235-1460 REMEMBER: Founded by Maninka-speaker Sunidata (Soon ja ta) Keita (kay ta) AD1235; 1235-c.1255 A Non-Muslim The Empire of Mali was a Successor State to Ghana and controlled the populations the same. Only difference is that Mali controlled salt fields and gold fields Mansa Kankan Musa (Sundiata Keita’s Grandson) was a Muslim and performed the pilgrimage AD1324-1325 (Short Answer #18) Traders, Urbanites, and now Royals become Muslims; some rural farmers MANSA KANKAN MUSA REMEMBER: 80-100 camels loaded with GOLD 500 slaves carried gold staffs of 4 lbs. each Over 1000 people in his entourage Gave away gold at each stop—all the way to Mecca and back along the trade routes from Timbuktu Depressed the price of gold in the Mediterranean Basin for 10 years Attracted the Attention of Europeans who had made GOLD their Currency Brought back Arab, Muslim Clerics from the Al-Azhar Mosque/University to teach Black Africans to become Muslim Clerics at his new university Sankore University, Timbuktu Mali falls due to internal revolts over succession to kingship. Short Answer #18 NEW EUROPEAN INTEREST IN AFRICA The Fatimid Dinar from North Africa minted by Muslim governments Increased trade between Africa and Europe Europeans change their coins from silver and copper to gold 2/3 of the gold used in Europe came from West Africa Unification of North African Groups spread the Gold Trade Kankan Musa’s Pilgrimage focuses European interest on the Empire of Mali; how can they get access to all that gold. SONGHAI EMPIRE SUNNI ALI A SONGHAI SPEAKER THEN THE SONINKE SPEAKING ASKIA MOHAMMEDS SONGHAI EMPIRE AD 1400-1591 Successor State to Mali and to Ghana following the same rules (Marriage and Hostage Diplomacy)—The Largest of the three. Capital at Gao (founded AD800); Chief Trade City is Timbuktu near the Niger River Sunni Ali Ber A Songhai-speaker was a Product of Hostage Diplomacy, He uses his knowledge against disintegrating Malian Empire creating the Songhai Empire He in turn is overthrown by Muslim Soninke-speaker Askia (Emperor) Mohammed Toure I Rule followed by his Muslim sons, Askia Mohammed Toure II and III; The Last Ruler was Askia Ishaq II The Askias Insisted that all rural peoples become Muslim 1591 Civil War prompted Morocco Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi to send an army to conquer Songhai. Al-Mansur hoped to control the West African gold fields and establish himself as the Caliph of Sudan Faced with logistical problems and the near impossibility of controlling the gold mines which prompted the initial invasion, the Moroccans withdrew in 1661 The Songhai Empire could not be reestablished. From 1591 to 1901 various Askias attempted to continue the traditions of the old empire Finally in 1901 French colonial forces conquered their state MUSLIM NORTH AFRICA EGYPT: FATIMID CALIPHATE (SHI’IA) EGYPT: SALAH AL’DIN’S AYYUBID CALIPHATE (SUNNI) FATIMID EMPIRE (969-1171) SHI’IA-based Believe that the leader of the Faithful has completed Quranic School/Teachings; Knows the Law; AND is a direct descendent from Mohammed’s family. Fatima was Mohammed’s daughter EGYPT: THE FATIMID CALIPHATE AD950 The FATIMID Rulers of Egypt were SHIA; Independent of Baghdad Shia because Fatima was the Daughter of Mohammed They brought in Mamluks--Slave Soldiers to run the Army MAMLUK—Arabic word meaning white warrior slave commonly denotes a slaved owned by the State Salah al-Din was a foot soldier from Kurdistan (Present-day northern Iraq border with Turkey). He is talented and rises to the rank of General. Salah al-Din is a SUNNI CRUSADES -- 1189 BATTLES RICHARD THE LION HEART IN THE THIRD CRUSADE which ends in a Truce--Allows Christian Pilgrims back into the Holy Land IF they behave SALAH AL-DIN IBN AYYUB Kurdistan Mamluk Foot Soldier Reorganized Egyptian Army Recaptured Jerusalem For Islam 1187 Fought In The Third Crusade Against Richard I Of England SALAH AL-DIN IBN AYYUBID THE CRUSADES CHRISTIAN KNIGHTS MUSLIM SARACENS SALAH AL-DIN MAMLUK EGYPT AYYUBID DYNASTY SALAH AL-DIN (aka Saladin) Is A Sunni Sunnis believe that the Leader of the Faithful has completed Quranic School And Knows the Law Overthrows Fatimid Dynasty Stability & Prosperity In Egypt Cairo Important Center Of Arab And Islamic Learning Mamluks Become Military & Landed Aristocracy Fails To Change With The Times Refuses To Use Gunpowder Weapons Falls To The Ottoman Empire CAIRO AL-AZHAR MOSQUE & UNIVERSITY CAIRO (AD970) SHORT ANSWER #15 WEST AFRICAN TRADE EMPIRES KANEM AND BORNU (present-day Chad, Libya, Niger, Sudan) HAUSA CITY-STATES (present-day Northern Nigeria) YORUBA STATES (present-day Eastern Nigeria) KINGDOM OF BENIN (present-day Eastern Nigeria) KANEM & BORNU EMPIRE HISTORY EMPIRE KANEM & BORNU 9TH CENTURY AD (AD 800s)PASTORALISTS IN KANEM NORTH SHORE LAKE CHAD KANURI SPEAKERS 11TH CENTURY AD (AD 1000) TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE BROUGHT ISLAM MAI HUME (AD 1085-97) FIRST TO CONVERT TO ISLAM PARTICIPATED IN THE SLAVE TRADE TO THE EAST & MARCHED THROUGH DARFUR TO THE NILE CAPITAL AT NJIMI (TODAY CHAD) HEIGHT OF POWER AD 1210-1248 1393 MAI UMAR IBN IDRIS MOVED CAPITAL TO BORNU WEST OF LAKE CHAD(DRYING OF THE SAHARA) ALLIES WITH THE OTTOMAN TURKS WHOSE MERCENARIES TRAINED THE CAVALRY KANEM BORNU COURT c1700 HORSEMEN BORNU LIGHT CAVALRY AND MANINKA-SPEAKING FOOT SOLDIERS KANEM & BORNU TRADE WITH THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE OTTOMAN EMPIRE IN AFRICA KANURI GIRL NORTHERN NIGERIA HAUSA CITY STATES HAUSA CITY STATES HAUSA SPEAKERS FIRST CITY STATES AD 1000-1200 WALLED CITY STATES GOBIR—TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE KATSINA—IMPORTANT TRADING CENTER KANO—MANUFACTURING CENTER—WEAVING OF COTTON CLOTH ZARIA—MAJOR SUPPLIER OF SLAVES TO THE OTHER HAUSA STATES FROM THE BENUE RIVER REGION SLAVES DO THE HEAVY LABOR INCLUDING THE FARMING reason for Purdah in the region ENTRANCE TO KANO YORUBA STATES: OYO KINGDOM OF BENIN EDO-SPEAKING YORUBA STATE OYO EMPIRE YORUBA SPEAKING PEOPLES IFE DATES AROUND 10TH CENTURY—LEGENDARY KINGDOM EDGE OF THE SAVANNA—ACCESS TO NIGER RIVER AND THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE EMPEROR CALLED THE ALAFIN 1. SEMI-DIVINE 2. REQUIRED TO TAKE THE ADVICE OF THE ROYAL FAMILY COUNCIL 1ST ALAFIN OF OYO—ONIGBOGI (EARLY 1500s) AD 1650-1750 OYO EMPIRE AT ITS HEIGHT ALAFIN OROMPOTO WEALTH IN COMMERCE TRAINED ARMY AND CAVALRY PEAK OF MILITARY POWER 1738 (CONQUERED DAHOMEY IN 1748) 18TH CENTURY AD INCREASED TRADE WITH EUROPEANS EACH INDIVIDUAL STATE RULED ITSELF—KING CALLED OBA The further away from Oyo the more freedom the Oba had AD 1770-1789 LOSS OF POWER UNDER ALAFIN ABIODUN AD 1793 ALAFIN AWOLE DECLINES DUE TO 1. INTERNAL STRIFE, 2. UNHAPPY TRIBUTARY STATES 3. LOSS OF TRADE ROUTES YORUBA HEARTLAND AT IFE KINGDOM OF BENIN EDO SPEAKERS WARRIOR KING EWUARE AD 1440-1480—PROSPOROUS STATE BETWEEN THE OYO STATE AND THE NIGER RIVER—YORUBA CONNECTION OBA OF BENIN CONSIDERED DIVINE RELATED TO THE YORUBA HOLY CITY OF IFE EWEKA I—1ST OBA OF BENIN ABOUT AD 1300 BENIN HAD A COUNCIL OF CHIEFS--ADVISORS USED HOSTAGE DIPLOMACY HEIGHT OF BENIN AD 1440 EWUARE THE GREAT —LONGEST REIGN IN BENIN HISTORY 1. EXTENDED BOUNDARIES 2. HIGHLY ORGANIZED & EFFICIENT ARMY 3. LAST OBA BEFORE EUROPEANS ARRIVE ATTRACTED EUROPEAN INTEREST BECAUSE OF MILITARY EXPANSION WITHOUT USE OF EUROPEAN WEAPONS STAYED OUT OF THE LARGE-SCALE SLAVE TRADE UNTIL 18TH CENTURY AD DECLINE—LOSS OF TRADE TO EUROPEANS TOOK THE TRADE ELSEWHERE AND BECAUSE THEY WOULD NOT TRADE SLAVES BENIN CITY PALACE BENIN BRONZE HEAD BENIN: IVORY GAUNTLETS BENIN: IVORY PERSONAL MASK BENIN BRONZE LEOPARD BENIN: IVORY LEOPARD BENIN: BRONZE PLAQUE CENTRAL AFRICA KINGDOM OF KONGO KINGDOM OF KONGO Short Answer #19 SOVEREIGN KINGDOM OF KONGO AD 1390-1857 SEDENTARY FARMERS: Tropical Environment grew plantains, bananas, and coco-yams that had be introduced by Trade c. 1500 BC SURPLUS OF FOOD & TECHNOLOGY TO CREATE IT: Slash and Burn Agriculture DIVISION OF LABOR: Had a Standing Army, Blacksmiths URBANIZATION: Capital M'banza Kongo CULTURE—No Writing System; GOVERNMENT--State with a King (Manikongo); RELIGION--Polytheism, Oral LITERATURE--passed down from generation to generation, Problem with Monumental Architecture--the buildings were made of wood and in the tropical region there is constant decay. KINGDOM OF KONGO “LEOPARD KING” KINGDOM OF KONGO AFTER PORTUGUESE CONTACT Portuguese King: Manuel I (reigned 1495-1521) NZINGA NKUWU (Joao I) Kongolese King and son Mvemba 1. Baptized Catholic 1491 2. POLICY: OPEN ACCESS TO THE PORTUGUESE 3. Kongolese Travel to Portugal 4. Portuguese-trained Missionaries NZINGA MVEMBA 1506-1540 (AFFONSO I) 1. KONGO RENAISSANCE STATE capital at Sao Salvador do Kongo (formerly M'banza Kongo) 2. ACCEPTANCE OF PORTUGUESE CULTURE & TECHNOLOGY Son DOM HENRIQUE BECAME A CATHOLIC BISHOP 1513 = Bishop of Utica (Pope Julius II 1503-1513) THE PORTUGUESE UNDERMINE INDIGENOUS AUTHORITY THUS BEGINS THE SLAVE TRADE Short Answer #19 image1 image2 image3 image4 image5 image6 image7 image8 image9 image10 image11 image12 image13 image14 image15 image16 image17 image18 image19 image20 image21 image22 image23 image24 image25 image26 image27 image28 image29 image30 image31 image32 image33 image34 image35 image36 image37 image38 image39 image40 image41 image42 image43 image44 image45 image46 image47 image48 image49 image50 image51 image52 image53 image54 image55 image56 image57 image58 image59 image60 image61 image62 image63 image64 image65 image66

AFRICAN GEOGRAPHY

Physical Features And Images

This is a Tour of Africa’s Physical Features

Discussion #2: As you tour the Coastline, look for Ports and Access to Global Trade

Textbook Reading: pp. 2-12

AFRICA: EXTERIOR EASTERN HEMISPHERE Discussion #2: Africa’s Role in the Global Economy 1500BC--AD1400 via Trade (for this time period GLOBAL means the Eastern Hemisphere so there is no trade from the West African Coast UNTIL Module #2) 2nd LARGEST CONTINENT Africa is a Continent with 54 countries On the mainland And several island nations. PET PEEVE: Please do not mis-speak and call Africa a country. SOUTH: EXTERIOR COASTAL FEATURES: THE NAMIB DESERT See Video Clip SOUTH: EXTERIOR COASTAL FEATURES: THE SKELETON COAST (THE NAMIB) SOUTH: EXTERIOR FEATURES THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE My Photo: 1st Discovered by Portuguese Explorer Bartholomew Diaz in the 1480s 1st Rounded by Vasco da Gama in 1498 SOUTH: EXTERIOR FEATURES CAPE POINT Many mis-identify this as the Cape of Good Hope Also mis-identified as the division between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans VIEW OF THE SOUTH ATLANTIC FROM CAPE POINT SOUTHERNMOST POINT AFRICA CAPE AGUILLES CAPE AGUILLES: WHERE THE ATLANTIC AND THE INDIAN OCEANS MEET EAST: EXTERIOR FEATURES THE HORN OF AFRICA EAST: EXTERIOR FEATURES THE HORN OF AFRICA NORTH & EAST: EXTERIOR FEATURES THE RED SEA The Red Sea is sometimes called the Erythraean (Eritrean) Sea Described in a Sailor's Manual,The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, written in Greek, describes navigation and trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports along the coast of the Red Sea, and others along Northeast Africa and the Indian subcontinent. The text is dated to a mid-1st century date The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. The sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley. The name RED is referring to the direction South, just as the Black Sea's name may refer to North. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions. DISCUSSION #2: AXUM Controls the Trade along this water route transmitting goods to both the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean NORTH: EXTERIOR FEATURES: THE SINAI PENINSULA The Sinai Peninsula is a triangular peninsula in Egypt about 23,000 sq mi in area It is situated between the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and the Red Sea to the south It is the only part of Egyptian territory located in Asia, as opposed to Africa, serving as a land bridge between two continents NORTH: EXTERIOR FEATURES MEDITERRANEAN COASTLINE DISCUSSION #2: Trade from the Interior through North Africa transmitting goods to the Mediterranean Sea to points North (Europe), West (British Isles) and East (West Asia) NORTH: EXTERIOR FEATURES THE STRAIT OF GIBRALTAR Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea Separates Gibraltar and Peninsular Spain in Europe from Morocco and Ceuta (Spain) in Africa. The name comes from the Rock of Gibraltar, which in turn originates from the Arabic Jebel Tariq (meaning "Tariq's mountain") named after Tariq ibn Ziyad. Europe and Africa are separated by 8.9 mi of ocean at the strait's narrowest point. NORTH EXTERIOR FEATURES: GIBRALTAR The Rock of Gibraltar WEST: EXTERIOR FEATURES WEST AFRICA'S SHAPE Shape determined by early Tectonic split between Africa and South America INTERIOR EAST AFRICA DISCUSSION #2: Trade from the Interior through East Africa transmitting goods to the Indian Ocean to points North (through the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea) and East (through the Indian Ocean to the Arabian Peninsula, Indian sub-continent, and Asian Markets) THE TECTONIC PLATES The Tectonic Plates create the fault that produces East Africa's Rift Valley The fault begins in the Dead Sea crosses into Africa and moves southward. RIFT VALLEY = A Graben Fault The Land between the edges of the Fault Sinks: The Serengeti Grassland and many lakes in East Africa THE RIFT from Past to Future Will the Horn of Africa becme an Island? THE RIFT: In Djibouti Shows Separation of the Graben Fault DANAKIL 400 FT BELOW SEA LEVEL Located in the Rift Valley (Graben Fault) The Danakil Desert located in northeast Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, and northwestern Djibouti. Situated in the Afar Triangle, it stretches across 100,000 square kilometres of arid terrain. The area is known for its volcanoes and extreme heat, with daytime temperatures surpassing 122 °F The Danakil Desert is one of the lowest and hottest places on Earth RIFT VALLEY LAKES CREATED BY THE GRABEN FAULT LAKE VICTORIA is NOT a lake created by the Fault Look at the Lakes created by the Graben Fault INTERIOR EAST AFRICA: LAKE VICTORIA--NOT A RIFT LAKE With a surface area of 26,600 sq mi, Lake Victoria is Africa's largest lake by area The largest tropical lake in the world Lake Victoria is the world's second largest freshwater lake by surface area Lake Superior in North America is larger. In terms of its volume, Lake Victoria is the world's ninth largest continental lake with 2.2 billion acre-feet of water INTERIOR EAST AFRICA: LAKE TANGANYIKA Lake Tanganyika is the largest rift lake in Africa Lake Tanganyika is the deepest lake in Africa a mean depth of 1,870 ft & a max. depth of 4,820 ft (in the northern basin) Lake Tanganyika is the world's longest freshwater lake With a shoreline 1,136 mi Lake Tanganyika is the second largest freshwater lake in the world by volume and holds18% of the world's available fresh water Lake Tanganyika is the second deepest lake in the world Lake Baikal in Siberia is the Largest by volume and Deepest Lake in the World INTEIROR EAST AFRICA: RIFT VALLEY: THE SERENGETI PLAIN Serengeti from the Maasai language "Serengit" meaning "Endless Plains" The Serengeti hosts the largest terrestrial mammal migration in the world, It is one of the Seven Natural Wonders of Africa and one of the ten natural travel wonders of the world The region contains the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania and several game reserves. Approx. 70 larger mammal and 500 bird species are found there. See Video Clip INTERIOR EAST AFRICA: THE RIFT VALLEY INTERIOR EAST AFRICA: MOUNTAINS: MT. KILIMANJARO 19,340 FT Mt. Kilimanjaro has three volcanic cones, Kibo, Mawenzi and Shira It is a dormant volcanic mountain in Tanzania. It is the highest mountain in Africa It is the highest free-standing mountain in the world (19,341 ft) above sea level. The term Kilima-Njaro has generally been understood to mean the Mountain (Kilima) of Greatness (Njaro). However, it may mean the "White" mountain, as the term "Njaro" in former times was been used to denote whiteness, Does it look like this today? READ ON INTERIOR EAST AFRICA: MOUNTAINS: MT. KILIMANJARO THIS IS WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE TODAY LOSS OF THE GLACIER How/Why? Nature Made? Human Made? The excessive and aggressive felling of trees in the last few decades has led to a decrease in the moisture flow up the mountain slopes, where it is deposited as precipitation The peak does not get replenished by the water and moisture that the air flow would normally bring from that evapotranspiration from trees The icepack around Kilimanjaro’s summit is now measured to be approximately 15% of levels measured in 1912. See Video 1993 2000 Short Answer #2 INTERIOR EAST AFRICA: MOUNTAINS: MT. KENYA 17,058 FT Mt. Kenya is highest mountain in Kenya It is the second-highest in Africa, after Kilimanjaro INTERIOR EAST AFRICA: ETHIOPIAN HIGHLANDS INTERIOR EAST/NORTH AFRICA: NILE RIVER CONFLUENCE & SOURCES The Nile River is comprised of the White Nile whose source is Lake Victoria (discovered by John Hanning Speke) and the Blue Nile whose source is the Ethiopian Highlands and Lake Tana (two rainy seasons) The Confluence of the two rivers creates the Nile River The Annual Flood is caused by the Blue Nile INTERIOR EAST AFRICA: THE WHITE NILE In Uganda and The Sudan INTERIOR EAST AFRICA: THE BLUE NILE/BLUE NILE FALLS The Blue Nile brings the Silt from the Ethiopian Highlands that will be deposited along the lower Nile during the annual flood THE NILE The Confluence of the White Nile (steady flow) and the Blue Nile (floods due to 2 Rainy Seasons in the Ethiopian Highlands) The Nile in Cairo Floods in June of the year EGYPT’S ASWAN HIGH DAM on the NILE RIVER Completed in 1970 Replaced the Aswan Dam of 1902 An Embankment Dam built across the Nile at the city of Aswan Relocated Antiquities of Abu-Simbel Controls the Nile River Flood Waters for Irrigation Generates Electricity THE GRAND ETHIOPIAN RENAISSANCE DAM BASIN 2015-2019 Control over the Nile River Ethiopia, Sudan & Egypt Rain in the Ethiopian Highlands from June through December THE GRAND ETHIOPIAN RENAISSANCE DAM LOCATION 2015-2019 Location: Control over Flood Waters Hydro-Electricity THE GRAND ETHIOPIAN RENAISSANCE DAM 2015-2019 The Dam in Ethiopia opening in 2022 Largest in Africa INTERIOR CENTRAL & SOUTHERN AFRICA CENTRAL AFRICA SOUTHERN AFRICA INTERIOR CENTRAL AFRICA: TROPICAL RAINFOREST In 1980, 15% of the African Continent was Rainforest. Today, 5-7% of the Continent is Rainforest Why? INTERIOR CENTRAL AFRICA: TROPICAL RAINFOREST The Canopy Although lush and green, the soil is poor because it can never build humus. Enlarge the photo to see the roots sitting on top of the ground where they get their nutrients from the rain. INTERIOR CENTRAL AFRICA: THE CONGO/ZAIRE RIVER INTERIOR CENTRAL AFRICA: CONGO/ZAIRE PHOTO INTERIOR CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA: THE ZAMBEZI RIVER INTERIOR CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA: THE ZAMBEZI RIVER INTERIOR CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA: THE ZAMBEZI RIVER INTERIOR CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA: THE ZAMBEZI DELTA INTERIOR CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA: VICTORIA FALLS INTERIOR CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA: THE SMOKE THAT THUNDERS See Video INTERIOR CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA: VICTORIA FALLS DRY SEASON (Reduction of Flow) 2019 DROUGHT How/Why? Nature Made? Human Made? INTEIROR SOUTHERN AFRICA: THE KALAHARI DESERT See Video INTERIOR SOUTHERN AFRICA: THE KALAHARI--NOT A TRUE DESERT The Kalahari “Desert” is part of the huge sand basis from the Orange River in South Africa to Angola, in the West to Namibia &in the east to Zimbabwe Created by the erosion of soft stone formations. The Wind Shaped the Sand Ridges In the Last 10 t0 20,000 years, Dunes stabilized with vegetation. Dominant vegetation: Grasses, Thorny Shrubs & Acacia Trees, can survive long drought periods of more that ten months every year/ Should be called a Dry Savanna because the Dunes do not wander like those of the Namib WEST AFRICA INTERIOR LAKE CHAD: Chad is a local word meaning "large expanse of water" LAKE CHAD Lake Chad is the remnant of a former inland sea At its largest, sometime before 5000 BC (Important Date for the Ancients), Lake Mega-Chad is estimated to have covered an area of 390,000 sq mi, larger than the Caspian Sea is today 1823 Lake Chad first surveyed from shore by Europeans 1823 considered to be one of the largest lakes in the world then In 1851, German explorer Heinrich Barth carried a boat overland from Tripoli across the Sahara Desert by camel and made the first European waterborne survey THE DRYING OF LAKE CHAD Lake Chad shrank as much as 95% from about 1963 to 1998 LAKE CHAD WEST AFRICA INTERIOR: MT. CAMEROON 13,454 FT Mt. Cameroon's indigenous name is Mongo ma Ndemi ("Mountain of Greatness"). It is the highest point in sub-Saharan western and central Africa It is the fourth most prominent peak in Africa and the 31st most prominent in the world. 1986 LAKE NYOS DISASTER Lake Nyos and Lake Monoun are both crater lakes about a mile square located in remote mountain areas of northwest Cameroon,  Village August 21st gases from Mount Cameroon volcano came out of the lake settled in the valley and killed all humans, animals, and insects Lake Nyos 8 days after Event WEST AFRICA INTEIROR: THE FOUTA DJALLON HIGHLANDS Dry Season Rainy Season Cloud over the Fouta Djallon WEST AFRICA INTERIOR: THE NIGER RIVER BASIN The Niger is the largest river in western Africa The Niger is the third-longest river in Africa, exceeded only by the Nile and the Congo/Zaire River The Niger is the world's 11th-longest river at 2,590 miles. The river begins in Guinea and runs east from Guinea, through Mali, Niger, Benin, and Nigeria. There is an almost 90-degree turn south, to the Gulf of Guinea. Short Answer #1 Continue Reading—includes the Inland Niger Delta WEST AFRICA INTERIOR: THE NIGER RIVER The Niger is called Jeliba or Joliba "great river" in Mande; Orimiri or Orimili "great water" in Igbo; Egerew n-Igerewen "river of rivers" in Tuareg; Isa Ber "big river" in Songhay; Kwara in Hausa; and Oya in Yoruba. The origin of the name Niger, which originally applied only to the middle reaches of the river at Timbuktu. Timbuktu traded with the Mediterranean Basin (N-S Gold-Salt Trade) and Latin influence that altered the Tuareg name to, "black" INLAND NIGER DELTA The Niger River has Two Deltas: The River was originally two Rivers: The Djoliba and the Quorra. The Djoliba's Headwaters were in Guinea's highlands The Djoliba's Delta is at the confluence of the Niger [Djoliba] and the Bani Rivers The Quorra's Headwaters were in what is now the Sahara Desert The Quorra's Delta is the Mouth of the Niger [Quorra] River at the Ocean (aka as the Oil Rivers because of the Oil Palms grown in the region As the Sahara grew, the contours of the land caused the two rivers to "join" which makes the route of river move from North to East to South The River provided the Trade Oppotunities for the Empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai The Trans-Saharan Caravan system provided Trade Opportunities for the Empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai WEST AFRICA INTERIOR: TROPICAL RAIN FOREST KAKUM NATIONAL FOREST, GHANA WEST AFRICA INTERIOR: RAINFOREST IN THE CANOPY WEST AFRICA INTERIOR: TROPICAL VEGETATION WEST AFRICA INTERIOR: SLASH & BURN AGRICULTURE They underbrush and non-fruit bearing trees cut The underbrush is set on fire The ashes become the fertilizer Planting is done with a digging stick; plants each individual seed The ground cover protects the seeds from torrential rain WEST AFRICA INTERIOR: PALM OIL FROM PALM NUTS INLAND NORTH AFRICA NORTH INTERIOR ATLAS MOUNTAINS The Atlas is a mountain range across the northwestern stretch of Africa extending about 1,600 mi through Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia The highest peak is Toubkal, with an elevation of 13,665 ft in southwestern Morocco The Atlas ranges separate the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines from the Sahara Desert. TIBESTI MOUNTAINS OASIS The Tibesti Mts. are located in central Sahara, primarily located in the extreme north of Chad, with a small extension into southern Libya. The highest peak in the range, Emi Koussi, lies to the south at a height of 11,302 ft. and is the highest point in both Chad and the Sahara Tibesti, which means "place where the mountain people live," is the domain of the Toubou people. The Toubou live mainly along the wadis, on rare oases where palm trees and limited grains grow TIBESTI MOUNTAINS THE SAHARA The Sahara Desert extends Eastward from the Atlantic Ocean some 3,000 miles to the Nile River and the Red Sea, and Southward from the Atlas Mountains of Morocco and the Mediterranean shores more than 1,000 miles to the savannah called the Sahel. THE SAHARA HOW THE SAHARA BECAME A DESERT Climate scientist Gavin Schmidt, of NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies, explained c. 8,000 years ago, the Earth’s orbit was slightly different compared to how it is today. The tilt changed from around 24.1 degrees to the present-day 23.5 degrees. THE SAHARA BECOMES A DESERT There is now considerable evidence to show that the Sahara used to have a grassland ecosystem and was a much wetter place than it is now.  THE SAHARA IN THE DESERT SAHARA SANDSTORM DJADO PLATEAU image1 image2 image3 image4 image5 image6 image7 image8 image9 image10 image11 image12 image13 image14 image15 image16 image17 image18 image19 image20 image21 image22 image23 image24 image25 image26 image27 image28 image29 image30 image31 image32 image33 image34 image35 image36 image37 image38 image39 image40 image41 image42 image43 image44 image45 image46 image47 image48 image49 image50 image51 image52 image53 image54 image55 image56 image57 image58 image59 image60 image61 image62 image63 image64 image65 image66 image67 image68 image69 image70 image71 image72 image73 image74 image75 image76 image77 image78 image79 image80 image81 image82 image83 image84 image85 image86 image87 image88 image89 image90 image91 image92 image93 image94 image95 image96 image97 image98