Posted: February 26th, 2023

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D#3: Core Assessment: Global Economy (Eastern Hemisphere) THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

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Africa has been characterized as the Dark Continent, that it is, it is accused of being on the periphery of the ancient and medieval worlds’ economies.

 

Using the 

Geography Power Point 

 Download Geography Power Point 

and the Power Points on  4b 

Medieval West Africa (

 Download Medieval West Africa (

Trans-Saharan Trade, Empires of Ghana, Mali, & Songhai, Mansa Kankan Musa, and Introduction of Islam), And

4c East and Southern Africa

 Download 4c East and Southern Africa

, 
Discuss and PROVE that Africa was Central to Global Trade in the Eastern Hemisphere during the 
MEDIEVAL PERIOD which is AD300 through AD 1325.

TIMELINE: from AD 300 through AD 1400

THESIS STATEMENT:  Africa was central to Global Trade during the Medieval Period AD 300-1400.

PROOF:  Must include Date, Location, Activity, Global Trade includes Ideas and Products transmitted to Africa from the Eastern Hemisphere AND Ideas and Products transmitted From Africa to the Eastern Hemisphere showing HOW Africa was Central to Global Trade in the Eastern Hemisphere during the Medieval Period.

1 TRADE POINT #1:  AD 300 Trade from the West African Interior to the North African Coast (Kingdoms/Empires Ghana, Mali, Songhai) HOW does Ghana CONTROL the Trans-Saharan Trade  

2 IDEAS/CULTURE POINTS #1-#4:  INTRODUCTION OF ISLAM (Religion created in AD 622):  HOW, WHEN & WHY? to Axum, HOW, WHEN, AND WHY? to North Africa, HOW, WHEN, AND WHY? to the West African Interior, and HOW, WHEN, AND WHY? to the East African Trading City States (WHAT is a TRADE DIASPORA?);  WHO is MANSA KANKAN MUSA c. 1324-1325?  What did he do?

3.  IDEAS/CULTURE POINT #5:  Use of the Arabic Alphabet (based on the 22-consonant Phoenician Alphabet) in West and North Africa.

4. IDEAS/CULTURE POINT #6: HOW, WHEN, WHY?  Creation of a NEW Language:  Ki-Swahili  in East Africa

5.  TRADE POINT #2:  Trade from the interior to the Southern African Coast (Kingdom/Empire Zimbabwe) c. AD 1000 Gold trade through Sofola

The 

Assessment Power Point

 Download Assessment Power Point

tells the story. (If you cannot open the Link, Go to Module #1, DOCUMENTS, Last item Before Links/Videos. )

Due by midnight February 13, 2023

Example Below

1 TRADE POINT #1:  AD 300 Trade from the West African Interior to the North African Coast (Kingdoms/Empires Ghana, Mali, Songhai) HOW does Ghana CONTROL the Trans-Saharan Trade  

– As of AD 300, Ghana featured Soninke-speakers and established their empire at the headwaters of the Senegal and Niger Rivers. Ghana controlled trade in their region by taxing travelers heading north via gold, and those heading south were taxed via salt. Berber-speaking traders imported salt to the empire of Ghana and took gold back up north to the Mediterranean region. This was all done via the Camel Caravan Trade. This country was also the owner of all slaves through old-world slavery. This type of slavery meant that if a person was captured during war or conflict, that person became a slave.

 – Mali was founded by Sunidata Keita, a Maninka-speaker and non-Muslim, in AD 1235. This empire was a successor state to Ghana and controlled the population similarly through marriage or hostage diplomacy. Where Ghana did not control the salt and gold fields of Boure and Banbuk, Mali did. Ghana was only in control of the trade routes to and from the fields. Traders, urbanites, royals, and some rural farmers converted to Islam as it grew in West Africa. Mali eventually fell due to internal revolts over who was the successor to the kingship.

 – A successor state to Mali and Ghana, the Songhai empire lasted from AD 1400-1591. Following the same population control as Ghana and Mali, Songhai was the largest of the three kingdoms, with its capital at Gao (AD 800), with the central trade city being Timbuktu. Sunni Ali Ber, a Songhai-speaker, was caught in hostage diplomacy and used his knowledge of the falling Mali Empire to usher in the Songhai Empire. Askia Mohammed Toure I, a Muslim Soninke-speaker, then overthrow him. His sons later governed, with the last being Askia Ishaq I. All Askia (Emperors) declared that all rural people must become Muslim during this time. In 1592, Sognhai found itself in a civil war which prompted Morocco to send its army into the fray to control the gold fields of West Africa. Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur failed in his conquest and returned to Morocco in 1661 after realizing the impossibility of controlling the areas and the supporting logistics necessary. From 1591 to 1901, many Askias attempted to continue the traditions of the old empire, but they had to be re-established. In 1901, French colonial forces conquered the state and were placed under colonial rule.

 

2 IDEAS/CULTURE POINTS #1-#4:  INTRODUCTION OF ISLAM (Religion created in AD 622):  HOW, WHEN & WHY? to Axum, HOW, WHEN, AND WHY? to North Africa, HOW, WHEN, AND WHY? to the West African Interior, and HOW, WHEN, AND WHY? to the East African Trading City States (WHAT is a TRADE DIASPORA?);  WHO is MANSA KANKAN MUSA c. 1324-1325? What did he do?

– In Circa AD 622, Mohammed sends a colony of his people on a journey across the Red Sea into Axum to protect his New One God Religion (God of Abraham). This spread of Islam is done via migration. Around ad 647, Arabs began a conquest against the Berbers, which finished in the eighth century (c. AD 750). Though conquest is a form of spreading religion and culture, the Berbers were not converted. They were, however, taxed for not being Muslim. Ergo, Islam gained new supporters and followers as many wanted to avoid paying the tax. However, the Arab’s main focus was converting Berber children to Islam. Converted Berber traders and non-converted Berber traders (who were accompanied by Muslim Clerics) continued the spread of Islam to West Africa via trade from c. AD 750 to c. 1200. About the East African Trading City-States, Islam was brought by Arab settlers who married into ruling families. Lastly, the Trade diaspora is where traders maintained two families. Traders had a family at their place of origin and another in the trading states, which they married into.

 – Mansa Kankan Musa was a Muslim who performed a pilgrimage from AD 1324 to 1325 from Timbuktu to Mecca. He was the ninth Mansa, or King, of the Mali Empire. His expedition featured a caravan of 80-100 camels whose cargo mainly consisted of gold. Roughly 500 slaves accompanied Mansa Musa on his journey, and they each carried a gold staff weighing about 4 pounds. The supporting team of Mansa Musa’s travels equaled over 1000 people; for every top made, gold was given to the people. His action depreciated the value of gold in the Mediterranean Basin for ten years. During his travels, Europeans grew interested in his actions as gold was their currency, and Mansa Musa indirectly showed that Mali had abundant minerals. Upon his arrival home, he brought back Arab and Muslim clerics to teach Black Africans to become Muslim clerics themselves at what is known as Sankore University in Timbuktu.

 

3. IDEAS/CULTURE POINT #5: Use the Arabic Alphabet (based on the 22-consonant Phoenician Alphabet) in West and North Africa.

– The Arabic Alphabet was created in AD 350 as a spin of the Phoenician Alphabet of 1000 BC. Ghana grew a considerable interest in this writing system as Berber traders brought it to West Africa in the eighth century along with Muslim Clerics. The empire then hired clerics to keep records for them. Arab Clerics themselves could not live in Kumbi Saleh, the capital of Ghana, because a non-Muslim could not rule them. Therefore, they created a Muslim version of Kumbi Saleh. The king of the Ghana empire was not Muslim, but many of the population converted to Islam to be part of international trade dealings. In addition to being part of trade wealth, many converted for increased literacy.

 

4. IDEAS/CULTURE POINT #6: HOW, WHEN, WHY? Creation of a NEW Language:  Ki-Swahili  in East Africa

– Ki-Swahili is a blend of Arabic and African languages, meaning People of the Coast. As traders from the east came to East Africa, they were essentially forced to stay in the city-states until the winds blew away from Africa beginning in April. Therefore, languages and cultures collided, paving the way for the Ki-Swahili language. Arab settlers who married into ruling families of the east also contributed to the creation of the new language. These ruling families converted to Islam to take advantage of the growing international trade. In Kilwa, Arabic and Ki-Swahili speakers dominated the region with wealthy merchants by acting as advisors.

 

5. TRADE POINT #2: Trade from the interior to the Southern African Coast (Kingdom/Empire Zimbabwe) c. AD 1000 Gold trade through Sofola

– The Zimbabwe Empire lasted from 11th -14th centuries AD. Founded by Shona speakers, the term “Zimbabwe” means stone enclosure. Kilwa and Zimbabwe conducted trade with one another through the state of Sofola. Though Zimbabwe’s economy featured cattle keeping, agriculture, woven imported cloth, and iron, the most sought-after business was gold mining and gold smithing for jewelry. Gold items dealt in trades were found in the Indian Ocean Basin trade. Kilwa became the most important of the 40 East African City-States because of the gold trade business conducted with Great Zimbabwe.

Edited by 

James Buco

 on Feb 11 at 1:31pm

HISTORIC AFRICA

The Medieval World

West African Interior

Trade through North African Coast

TRANSMISSION OF CULTURE
TRADE: Products and Ideas/Culture (Language, Writing System, Religion, etc.)

MIGRATION: People move from one region to another taking with them their Products and Ideas

CONQUEST: One Government conquers a group of people forcing on them their Products and Ideas

MEDIEVAL TRADE
WEST AFRICAN INTERIOR TO THE MEDITERRANEAN SEA BASIN: THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE

SPREAD OF CULTURE FROM THE ARABIAN PENINSULA TO NORTH AFRICA AND WEST AFRICA

AFRICA AND THE WORLD ECONOMY
MY POINT IN THE DISCUSSION #3, And the Essay:
INTERIOR TRADE TO THE MEDITERRANEAN BASIN: TRADE POINT #1
Products from the African forest and savanna reached the Mediterranean Sea through the north south gold salt trade (AD300 Kingdom of Ghana trading with the Mediterranean) TAXATION OF CAMEL CARAVANS TRAVELING SOUTH IN SALT AND TRAVELING NORTH IN GOLD.
TRANS-SAHARN TRADE
CULTURE POINT #5: Use of Arabic Writing System based on the 22-consonant Phoenician Alphabet AD 350.

MEDITERRANEAN BASIN AND WEST ASIAN/ARABIAN PENINSULA TRADE AND SPREAD OF CULTURE: SPREAD OF CULTURE—SPREAD OF ISLAM CULTURE POINTS #2-3
Introduction of Islam to (2) North Africa by conquest and (3) West Africa by Trade (begins c. AD 650)

Empire of Mali: Mansa Kankan Musa makes his pilgrimage (AD 1324-1325) and alerts the Europeans to potential gold for coinage

TRANS-SAHARN TRADE

Interior Trade into the Mediterranean Sea Basin

EMPIRE OF GHANA CONTROLS THE TRANS SAHARAN TRADE
Trade with the Mediterranean Basin: Berber-speaking traders brought salt SOUTH to the Kingdom/Empire and took gold NORTH via CAMEL CARAVAN TRADE aka The TRANS SAHARAN TRADE (SHORT ANSWER #17)
Ghana did not own the gold fields of Banbuk (in present-day Senegal) or Boure (in present-day Guinea). It only controlled the trade routes to and from the fields
The Empire of Ghana CONTROLLED THE TRADE BY TAXING THE TRADERS TRAVELING NORTH (in Gold) AND THEN TAXED THEM AGAIN TRAVELING SOUTH (in salt) Trade Point #1
The Ghana did own all gold nuggets—anyone could own gold dust

CAMELS:
THE SHIPS OF THE DESERT

CAMELS: THE SHIPS OF THE DESERT
Camel introduced by the Romans for transportation in the 1st century AD The Dromedary Camel—One Hump
Travel 10+ days without water
Nostrils can close against the sand
Two sets of eye lashes to close against the sand
Feet splay to support weight in the sand
Camel caravans could be 5 to 2,000 camels
Trip takes 70-90 days using the stars to guide the traveler
Oases were refreshment centers

TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE
THE DESERT BRIDGE

MILO RVER

(Tributary to the Niger River)
KANKAN

TRADE CITY ON THE MILO RIVER—MY HOME IN GUINEA

BOURE GOLD
(Boure is today Siguiri, Guinea)

KANO CLOTH

KANO (today Northern Nigeria
HAUSA SPEAKERS CREATE CLOTH NAMED FOR THEIR CITY

SHEA BUTTER

TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE

This photo is taken outside Timbuktu 1993
The Tuareg (Berber-speakers) are known as the Blue Men of the Desert because the Indigo Dye rubs off on the skin
The Trans-Saharan Caravans still move products today

See Video Clip Trans-Saharan Trade

CAMEL CARAVAN

The Cheesecloth-like fabric keeps the wearer from breathing in sand in the air

TUAREG WOMEN

The Tuareg are a Matrilineal Society

CAMEL CARAVAN

CAMEL CARAVAN

CAMEL CARAVAN

SPREAD OF CULTURE
SPREAD OF ISLAM
AD 622 to AXUM via Migration
AD647-700 North Africa via Conquest
AD700 West African Interior via Trade

SPREAD OF ISLAM
MOHAMMED (AD570-632)
ISLAM BECOMES A RELIGION IN AD622
ISLAM SPREADS ON THE ARABIAN PENINSULA IN THE 7TH CENTURY
Short Answer #14
AXUM: Mohammed sends a colony across the Red Sea to Axum to protect his New One God Religion (God of Abraham) c. AD 622 via Migration CULTURE POINT #1
NORTH AFRICA: The ARABS began their CONQUEST of the Berbers of NORTH AFRICA in AD 647 and finished in the 8TH century via Conquest CULTURE POINT #2
The conquest did NOT force Islam on the Berbers–Instead they Taxed anyone who was not a Muslim
Many CONVERTED to avoid the TAX; The Muslims knew this was a false conversion–they weren’t really interested in the adults; They were interested in all the Children who MUST now become Muslim
WEST AFRICA: The Berbers carried Islam into WEST AFRICA through TRADE bringing with them Muslim Clerics who showed off their Trade Wares AND Writing System AD 700 via Trade CULTURE POINT #3

CULTURE POINT #1:
ISLAM ARRIVES TO AXUM AD 622
Mohammed escapes from Mecca to Medina where he established his first Mosque c. 622
Mohammed sends a colony across the Red Sea to Axum to protect his Religion c. 622
At the time, this coastal land was a province of Ethiopia. Ethiopia 1st practiced polytheism, 900 BC Judaism, AD 330 East Orthodox Christian which had be transmitted by Greek sailors in the Red Sea Trade
Today the land is Eritrea

SPREAD OF ISLAM TO
THE EMPIRE OF GHANA
8th century Islam is introduced as Berber Traders bring with them International Traders from North Africa, Muslim Clerics
The Ghana is interested in the technology of writing the Arabic Alphabet (Arabic alphabet created in AD350 a spin off of the Phoenician Alphabet 1000BC) CULTURE POINT #5
The Ghana Employed Arab Clerics to keep records
Arab Clerics could not live in Kumbi Saleh because they cannot be ruled by a non-Muslims so they created a “twin city” of Muslim Kumbi Saleh
The King did not become a Muslim but many urbanites did so that they could participate in the international trade

ISLAM FOR NON-ARABIC SPEAKERS
MEMORIZATION OF THE QURAN IN ARABIC
SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

EMPIRE OF MALI
AD1235-1460
Founded by Maninka-speaker Sunidata (Soon ja ta) Keita (kay ta) AD1235-c.1255
A Non-Muslim
The Empire of Mali was a Successor State to Ghana and controlled the populations the same. Only difference is that Mali controlled salt fields and gold fields
Mansa Kankan Musa (Sundiata Keita’s Grandson) was a Muslim and performed the pilgrimage AD1324-1325 (Short Answer #18)
Handed out gold at each city, town, village to build Mosques And Quarnic Schools
Traders, Urbanites, and now Royals become Muslims; Plus some rural farmers

24

MANSA KANKAN MUSA
80-100 camels loaded with gold
500 slaves carried gold staffs of 4 lbs. each
Over 1000 people in his entourage
Gave away gold at each stop—all the way to Mecca and back along the trade routes from Timbuktu
Depressed the price of gold in the Mediterranean Basin for 10 years
Attracted the Attention of Europeans who had made GOLD their Currency
Brought back Arab, Muslim Clerics from the Al-Azhar Mosque/University to teach Black Africans to become Muslim Clerics at his new university
Sankore University, Timbuktu
Mali falls due to internal revolts over succession to kingship.

Short Answer #18

NEW EUROPEAN INTEREST IN AFRICA
The Fatimid Dinar from North Africa minted by Muslim governments
Increased trade between Africa and Europe
Europeans change their coins from silver and copper to gold
2/3 of the gold used in Europe came from West Africa
Unification of North African Groups spread the Gold Trade
Kankan Musa’s Pilgrimage focuses European interest on the Empire of Mali; how can they get access to all that gold.

ROAD INTO TIMBUKTU

TIMBUKTU

This is a picture 1993 of the Original Tuareg Well (walled off as a part of the Timbuktu Museum)
The grass House is a replica of the type of house used by the caretaker of the Well
The Story:
The Tuareg dug the well at a trade crossroads
Any Traveler could have water from the well
They had to leave someone to make sure it didn’t fill in with sand
The only “expendable” family member was a post-menopausal woman name Timbuktu

SANKORE MOSQUE
TIMBUKTU

The Sankore Mosque
(one of three mosques)
Sahalian Architecture–the wood poles allow people to repair the erosion of the exterior walls
Today it only rains once per year
Today’s Erosion is Wind Erosion

SANKORE UNIVERSITY
TIMBUKTU

Part of Sankore Mosque
This is Sankore University established by Mansa Kankan Musa in AD1325
Kankan Musa, a Muslim, brought back Arab Clerics (brown-skinned) from the Al-Azahar University in Cairo to create a cadre of African Clerics (black-skinned) so that Africans could learn about Islam from locals and not foreigners
The University’s focus was only Religion

TIMBUKTU
NEW WELL

SHOPPING IN THE MARKET

TIMBUKTU IMPORTS ALL FOOD

TIMBUKTU

BAKING BREAD IN TIMBUKTU

Because the oven is open, sand crystals are found in the bread making it “crunchy.”

AL-AZHAR MOSQUE & UNIVERSITY
CAIRO (AD970)

SHORT ANSWER #15

SPREAD OF ISLAM

WEST AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND EMPIRES
THE INLAND NIGER DELTA
THE SUCCESSOR STATES OF
GHANA AD300-1076
MALI AD1235-1460
SONGHAI AD1460-1581

INLAND NIGER DELTA

See Geography Power Point about the formation of the two Niger Deltas
The Delta’s River Basin Agriculture supports the Ghana, Mali, and Songhai Empires–feeds the Royals and the Army

WEST AFRICA
Kingdoms/Empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai are SUCCESSOR STATES. While the leadership for each is from different ethnic groups the method of control is the same
EMPIRE EXPANSION: CONQUEST
Marriage Diplomacy: Those who did not want to be destroyed in war offered a royal daughter to be wed to the King so no war protecting your people and land and the King does not need to waste his resources. Positive for those marrying into the kingdom because the king may be the son of your royal daughter—special connection to your group
Hostage Diplomacy: After conquest how do you keep them honest and tight with the conquerors no matter how far away they are? The King takes the firsts borns—royals, religious, highly placed—back to his palace and raise them as his own. He raises them with his own children. The hope is that when the parents die, we send them back to rule as our friends (well, that’s the plan).
We find this methodology in Egypt and other kingdoms and empires across Africa

EMPIRE OF GHANA

SONINKE SPEAKERS
SHORT ANSWER #16

EMPIRE OF GHANA
AD 300
Soninke-speakers
Established Kingdom that spreads into an empire in the headwaters of the Senegal and Niger Rivers.
Capital at Kumbi Saleh
Ghana is the Kings title: “Great Warrior”
The Ghana was assisted by a Council of Ministers
Ghana owned all of the slaves (old world slavery: to become a slave you are captured in war) Slaves were used as farmers in the Niger Inland Delta and as soldiers

EMPIRE OF GHANA
REMEMBER: Trade with the Mediterranean Basin: Berber-speaking traders brought salt to the Kingdom/Empire and took gold north CAMEL CARAVAN TRADE (SHORT ANSWER #17)
Ghana did not own the gold fields of Banbuk (in present-day Senegal) or Boure (in present-day Guinea). It only controlled the trade routes to and from the fields
MAJOR TRADE CITY: TIMBUKTU
The Empire of Ghana CONTROLLED THE TRADE BY TAXING THE TRADERS TRAVELING NORTH (in Gold) AND THEN TAXED THEM AGAIN TRAVELING SOUTH (in salt)
The Ghana did own all gold nuggets—anyone could own gold dust

SPREAD OF ISLAM TO THE EMPIRE OF GHANA
8th century Islam is introduced as Berber Traders bring with them International Traders from North Africa, Muslim Clerics
The Ghana is interested in the technology of writing the Arabic Alphabet (Arabic alphabet created in AD350 a spin off of the Phoenician Alphabet 1000BC)
Employed Arab Clerics to keep records
Arab Clerics could not live in Kumbi Saleh because the cannot be ruled by a non-Muslims so they created a “twin city” of Muslim Kumbi Saleh
The King did not become a Muslim but many urbanites did so that they could participate in the international trade
Ghana fell in AD1076

WHY CONVERT?
WEALTH OF THE LONG-DISTANCE TRADE
INTERNATIONAL TRADE—NEW PRESTIGE ITEMS
LITERACY
UNIVERSAL RELIGION

EMPIRE OF MALI

MANINKA SPEAKERS

EMPIRE OF MALI
AD1235-1460
REMEMBER: Founded by Maninka-speaker Sunidata (Soon ja ta) Keita (kay ta) AD1235; 1235-c.1255
A Non-Muslim
The Empire of Mali was a Successor State to Ghana and controlled the populations the same. Only difference is that Mali controlled salt fields and gold fields
Mansa Kankan Musa (Sundiata Keita’s Grandson) was a Muslim and performed the pilgrimage AD1324-1325 (Short Answer #18)
Traders, Urbanites, and now Royals become Muslims; some rural farmers

MANSA KANKAN MUSA
REMEMBER: 80-100 camels loaded with GOLD
500 slaves carried gold staffs of 4 lbs. each
Over 1000 people in his entourage
Gave away gold at each stop—all the way to Mecca and back along the trade routes from Timbuktu
Depressed the price of gold in the Mediterranean Basin for 10 years
Attracted the Attention of Europeans who had made GOLD their Currency
Brought back Arab, Muslim Clerics from the Al-Azhar Mosque/University to teach Black Africans to become Muslim Clerics at his new university
Sankore University, Timbuktu
Mali falls due to internal revolts over succession to kingship.

Short Answer #18

NEW EUROPEAN INTEREST IN AFRICA
The Fatimid Dinar from North Africa minted by Muslim governments
Increased trade between Africa and Europe
Europeans change their coins from silver and copper to gold
2/3 of the gold used in Europe came from West Africa
Unification of North African Groups spread the Gold Trade
Kankan Musa’s Pilgrimage focuses European interest on the Empire of Mali; how can they get access to all that gold.

SONGHAI EMPIRE

SUNNI ALI A SONGHAI SPEAKER THEN THE SONINKE SPEAKING ASKIA MOHAMMEDS

SONGHAI EMPIRE
AD 1400-1591
Successor State to Mali and to Ghana following the same rules (Marriage and Hostage Diplomacy)—The Largest of the three. Capital at Gao (founded AD800); Chief Trade City is Timbuktu near the Niger River
Sunni Ali Ber A Songhai-speaker was a Product of Hostage Diplomacy, He uses his knowledge against disintegrating Malian Empire creating the Songhai Empire
He in turn is overthrown by Muslim Soninke-speaker Askia (Emperor) Mohammed Toure I Rule followed by his Muslim sons, Askia Mohammed Toure II and III; The Last Ruler was Askia Ishaq II
The Askias Insisted that all rural peoples become Muslim
1591 Civil War prompted Morocco Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi to send an army to conquer Songhai. Al-Mansur hoped to control the West African gold fields and establish himself as the Caliph of Sudan
Faced with logistical problems and the near impossibility of controlling the gold mines which prompted the initial invasion, the Moroccans withdrew in 1661
The Songhai Empire could not be reestablished. From 1591 to 1901 various Askias attempted to continue the traditions of the old empire
Finally in 1901 French colonial forces conquered their state

MUSLIM NORTH AFRICA
EGYPT: FATIMID CALIPHATE (SHI’IA)
EGYPT: SALAH AL’DIN’S AYYUBID CALIPHATE (SUNNI)

FATIMID EMPIRE (969-1171)
SHI’IA-based
Believe that the leader of the Faithful has completed Quranic School/Teachings; Knows the Law; AND is a direct descendent from Mohammed’s family.
Fatima was Mohammed’s daughter

EGYPT:
THE FATIMID CALIPHATE
AD950 The FATIMID Rulers of Egypt were SHIA; Independent of Baghdad
Shia because Fatima was the Daughter of Mohammed
They brought in Mamluks–Slave Soldiers to run the Army
MAMLUK—Arabic word meaning white warrior slave commonly denotes a slaved owned by the State
Salah al-Din was a foot soldier from Kurdistan (Present-day northern Iraq border with Turkey). He is talented and rises to the rank of General.
Salah al-Din is a SUNNI
CRUSADES — 1189 BATTLES RICHARD THE LION HEART IN THE THIRD CRUSADE which ends in a Truce–Allows Christian Pilgrims back into the Holy Land IF they behave

SALAH AL-DIN IBN AYYUB
Kurdistan
Mamluk Foot Soldier
Reorganized Egyptian Army
Recaptured Jerusalem For Islam 1187
Fought In The Third Crusade Against Richard I Of England

SALAH AL-DIN
IBN AYYUBID

THE CRUSADES

CHRISTIAN KNIGHTS MUSLIM SARACENS

SALAH AL-DIN
MAMLUK EGYPT

AYYUBID DYNASTY
SALAH AL-DIN (aka Saladin) Is A Sunni
Sunnis believe that the Leader of the Faithful has completed Quranic School And Knows the Law
Overthrows Fatimid Dynasty
Stability & Prosperity In Egypt
Cairo Important Center Of Arab And Islamic Learning
Mamluks Become Military & Landed Aristocracy
Fails To Change With The Times Refuses To Use Gunpowder Weapons
Falls To The Ottoman Empire

CAIRO

AL-AZHAR MOSQUE & UNIVERSITY
CAIRO (AD970)

SHORT ANSWER #15

WEST AFRICAN
TRADE EMPIRES
KANEM AND BORNU (present-day Chad, Libya, Niger, Sudan)
HAUSA CITY-STATES (present-day Northern Nigeria)
YORUBA STATES (present-day Eastern Nigeria)
KINGDOM OF BENIN (present-day Eastern Nigeria)

KANEM & BORNU EMPIRE

HISTORY
EMPIRE KANEM & BORNU
9TH CENTURY AD (AD 800s)PASTORALISTS IN KANEM NORTH SHORE LAKE CHAD
KANURI SPEAKERS
11TH CENTURY AD (AD 1000) TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE BROUGHT ISLAM
MAI HUME (AD 1085-97) FIRST TO CONVERT TO ISLAM
PARTICIPATED IN THE SLAVE TRADE TO THE EAST & MARCHED THROUGH DARFUR TO THE NILE
CAPITAL AT NJIMI (TODAY CHAD)
HEIGHT OF POWER AD 1210-1248
1393 MAI UMAR IBN IDRIS MOVED CAPITAL TO BORNU WEST OF LAKE CHAD(DRYING OF THE SAHARA)
ALLIES WITH THE OTTOMAN TURKS WHOSE MERCENARIES TRAINED THE CAVALRY

KANEM BORNU

COURT c1700
HORSEMEN

BORNU LIGHT CAVALRY AND MANINKA-SPEAKING FOOT SOLDIERS

KANEM & BORNU TRADE WITH THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

OTTOMAN EMPIRE IN AFRICA

KANURI GIRL
NORTHERN NIGERIA

HAUSA
CITY STATES

HAUSA CITY STATES
HAUSA SPEAKERS
FIRST CITY STATES AD 1000-1200
WALLED CITY STATES
GOBIR—TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE
KATSINA—IMPORTANT TRADING CENTER
KANO—MANUFACTURING CENTER—WEAVING OF COTTON CLOTH
ZARIA—MAJOR SUPPLIER OF SLAVES TO THE OTHER HAUSA STATES FROM THE BENUE RIVER REGION
SLAVES DO THE HEAVY LABOR INCLUDING THE FARMING reason for Purdah in the region

ENTRANCE TO KANO

YORUBA STATES:
OYO

KINGDOM OF BENIN
EDO-SPEAKING
YORUBA STATE

OYO EMPIRE
YORUBA SPEAKING PEOPLES
IFE DATES AROUND 10TH CENTURY—LEGENDARY KINGDOM
EDGE OF THE SAVANNA—ACCESS TO NIGER RIVER AND THE TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE
EMPEROR CALLED THE ALAFIN
1. SEMI-DIVINE
2. REQUIRED TO TAKE THE ADVICE OF THE ROYAL FAMILY COUNCIL
1ST ALAFIN OF OYO—ONIGBOGI (EARLY 1500s)
AD 1650-1750 OYO EMPIRE AT ITS HEIGHT ALAFIN OROMPOTO
WEALTH IN COMMERCE
TRAINED ARMY AND CAVALRY PEAK OF MILITARY POWER 1738 (CONQUERED DAHOMEY IN 1748)
18TH CENTURY AD INCREASED TRADE WITH EUROPEANS
EACH INDIVIDUAL STATE RULED ITSELF—KING CALLED OBA The further away from Oyo the more freedom the Oba had
AD 1770-1789 LOSS OF POWER UNDER ALAFIN ABIODUN
AD 1793 ALAFIN AWOLE DECLINES DUE TO
1. INTERNAL STRIFE,
2. UNHAPPY TRIBUTARY STATES
3. LOSS OF TRADE ROUTES

YORUBA HEARTLAND AT IFE

KINGDOM OF BENIN
EDO SPEAKERS
WARRIOR KING EWUARE AD 1440-1480—PROSPOROUS STATE BETWEEN THE OYO STATE AND THE NIGER RIVER—YORUBA CONNECTION
OBA OF BENIN CONSIDERED DIVINE
RELATED TO THE YORUBA HOLY CITY OF IFE
EWEKA I—1ST OBA OF BENIN ABOUT AD 1300
BENIN HAD A COUNCIL OF CHIEFS–ADVISORS
USED HOSTAGE DIPLOMACY
HEIGHT OF BENIN AD 1440
EWUARE THE GREAT —LONGEST REIGN IN BENIN HISTORY
1. EXTENDED BOUNDARIES
2. HIGHLY ORGANIZED & EFFICIENT ARMY
3. LAST OBA BEFORE EUROPEANS ARRIVE
ATTRACTED EUROPEAN INTEREST BECAUSE OF MILITARY EXPANSION WITHOUT USE OF EUROPEAN WEAPONS
STAYED OUT OF THE LARGE-SCALE SLAVE TRADE UNTIL 18TH CENTURY AD
DECLINE—LOSS OF TRADE TO EUROPEANS TOOK THE TRADE ELSEWHERE AND BECAUSE THEY WOULD NOT TRADE SLAVES

BENIN CITY PALACE

BENIN BRONZE HEAD

BENIN: IVORY GAUNTLETS

BENIN: IVORY PERSONAL MASK

BENIN BRONZE LEOPARD

BENIN: IVORY LEOPARD

BENIN: BRONZE PLAQUE

CENTRAL AFRICA
KINGDOM OF KONGO

KINGDOM OF KONGO

Short Answer #19

SOVEREIGN KINGDOM OF KONGO AD 1390-1857
SEDENTARY FARMERS: Tropical Environment grew plantains, bananas, and coco-yams that had be introduced by Trade c. 1500 BC
SURPLUS OF FOOD & TECHNOLOGY TO CREATE IT: Slash and Burn Agriculture
DIVISION OF LABOR: Had a Standing Army, Blacksmiths
URBANIZATION: Capital M’banza Kongo
CULTURE—No Writing System; GOVERNMENT–State with a King (Manikongo); RELIGION–Polytheism, Oral LITERATURE–passed down from generation to generation, Problem with Monumental Architecture–the buildings were made of wood and in the tropical region there is constant decay.

KINGDOM OF KONGO
“LEOPARD KING”

KINGDOM OF KONGO
AFTER PORTUGUESE CONTACT
Portuguese King: Manuel I (reigned 1495-1521)
NZINGA NKUWU (Joao I) Kongolese King and son Mvemba
1. Baptized Catholic 1491
2. POLICY: OPEN ACCESS TO THE PORTUGUESE
3. Kongolese Travel to Portugal
4. Portuguese-trained Missionaries
NZINGA MVEMBA 1506-1540 (AFFONSO I)
1. KONGO RENAISSANCE STATE capital at Sao Salvador do Kongo (formerly M’banza Kongo)
2. ACCEPTANCE OF PORTUGUESE CULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
Son DOM HENRIQUE BECAME A CATHOLIC BISHOP 1513 = Bishop of Utica (Pope Julius II 1503-1513)
THE PORTUGUESE UNDERMINE INDIGENOUS AUTHORITY THUS BEGINS THE SLAVE TRADE

Short Answer #19

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AFRICAN GEOGRAPHY

Physical Features And Images

This is a Tour of Africa’s Physical Features

Discussion #2: As you tour the Coastline, look for Ports and Access to Global Trade

Textbook Reading: pp. 2-12

AFRICA:
EXTERIOR EASTERN HEMISPHERE

Discussion #2: Africa’s Role in the Global Economy 1500BC–AD1400 via Trade (for this time period GLOBAL means the Eastern Hemisphere so there is no trade from the West African Coast UNTIL Module #2)

2nd LARGEST CONTINENT

Africa is a Continent with 54 countries
On the mainland And several island
nations.
PET PEEVE:
Please do not mis-speak and call Africa a country.

SOUTH: EXTERIOR COASTAL FEATURES: THE NAMIB DESERT

See Video Clip

SOUTH: EXTERIOR COASTAL FEATURES: THE SKELETON COAST (THE NAMIB)

SOUTH: EXTERIOR FEATURES
THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE

My Photo:
1st Discovered by Portuguese Explorer Bartholomew Diaz in the 1480s
1st Rounded by Vasco da Gama in 1498

SOUTH: EXTERIOR FEATURES
CAPE POINT

Many mis-identify this as the Cape of Good Hope
Also mis-identified as the division between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans

VIEW OF THE SOUTH ATLANTIC FROM CAPE POINT

SOUTHERNMOST POINT
AFRICA CAPE AGUILLES

CAPE AGUILLES: WHERE THE ATLANTIC AND THE INDIAN OCEANS MEET

EAST: EXTERIOR FEATURES
THE HORN OF AFRICA

EAST: EXTERIOR FEATURES THE HORN OF AFRICA

NORTH & EAST: EXTERIOR FEATURES
THE RED SEA

The Red Sea is sometimes called the Erythraean (Eritrean) Sea
Described in a Sailor’s Manual,The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, written in Greek, describes navigation and trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports along the coast of the Red Sea, and others along Northeast Africa and the Indian subcontinent. The text is dated to a mid-1st century date
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia.
The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden.
The sea is underlain by the Red Sea Rift which is part of the Great Rift Valley.
The name RED is referring to the direction South, just as the Black Sea’s name may refer to North. The basis of this theory is that some Asiatic languages used color words to refer to the cardinal directions.

DISCUSSION #2: AXUM Controls the Trade along this water route transmitting goods to both the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean

NORTH: EXTERIOR FEATURES: THE SINAI PENINSULA

The Sinai Peninsula is a triangular peninsula in Egypt about 23,000 sq mi in area
It is situated between the Mediterranean Sea to the north, and the Red Sea to the south
It is the only part of Egyptian territory located in Asia, as opposed to Africa, serving as a land bridge between two continents

NORTH: EXTERIOR FEATURES MEDITERRANEAN COASTLINE

DISCUSSION #2: Trade from the Interior through North Africa transmitting goods to the Mediterranean Sea to points North (Europe), West (British Isles) and East (West Asia)

NORTH: EXTERIOR FEATURES THE STRAIT OF GIBRALTAR
Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea
Separates Gibraltar and Peninsular Spain in Europe from Morocco and Ceuta (Spain) in Africa.
The name comes from the Rock of Gibraltar, which in turn originates from the Arabic Jebel Tariq (meaning “Tariq’s mountain”) named after Tariq ibn Ziyad.
Europe and Africa are separated by 8.9 mi of ocean at the strait’s narrowest point.

NORTH EXTERIOR FEATURES:
GIBRALTAR

The Rock of Gibraltar

WEST: EXTERIOR FEATURES
WEST AFRICA’S SHAPE

Shape determined by early Tectonic split between Africa and South America

INTERIOR EAST AFRICA

DISCUSSION #2: Trade from the Interior through East Africa transmitting goods to the Indian Ocean to points North (through the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea) and East (through the Indian Ocean to the Arabian Peninsula, Indian sub-continent, and Asian Markets)

THE TECTONIC PLATES

The Tectonic Plates create the fault that produces East Africa’s Rift Valley
The fault begins in the Dead Sea crosses into Africa and moves southward.

RIFT VALLEY = A Graben Fault

The Land between the edges of the Fault Sinks:
The Serengeti Grassland and many lakes in East Africa

THE RIFT from Past to Future

Will the Horn of Africa
becme an Island?

THE RIFT: In Djibouti
Shows Separation of the Graben Fault

DANAKIL
400 FT BELOW SEA LEVEL

Located in the Rift Valley (Graben Fault) The Danakil Desert located in northeast Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, and northwestern Djibouti. Situated in the Afar Triangle, it stretches across 100,000 square kilometres of arid terrain.
The area is known for its volcanoes and extreme heat, with daytime temperatures surpassing 122 °F
The Danakil Desert is one of the lowest and hottest places on Earth

RIFT VALLEY LAKES
CREATED BY THE GRABEN FAULT
LAKE VICTORIA is
NOT a lake created
by the Fault
Look at the Lakes created
by the Graben Fault

INTERIOR EAST AFRICA:
LAKE VICTORIA–NOT A RIFT LAKE

With a surface area of 26,600 sq mi, Lake Victoria is Africa’s largest lake by area
The largest tropical lake in the world
Lake Victoria is the world’s second largest freshwater lake by surface area
Lake Superior in North America is larger.
In terms of its volume, Lake Victoria is the world’s ninth largest continental lake with 2.2 billion acre-feet of water

INTERIOR EAST AFRICA:
LAKE TANGANYIKA

Lake Tanganyika is the largest rift lake in Africa
Lake Tanganyika is the deepest lake in Africa a mean depth of 1,870 ft & a max. depth of 4,820 ft (in the northern basin)
Lake Tanganyika is the world’s longest freshwater lake
With a shoreline 1,136 mi Lake Tanganyika is the second largest freshwater lake in the world by volume and holds18% of the world’s available fresh water
Lake Tanganyika is the second deepest lake in the world
Lake Baikal in Siberia is the Largest by volume and Deepest Lake in the World

INTEIROR EAST AFRICA:
RIFT VALLEY: THE SERENGETI PLAIN

Serengeti from the Maasai language
“Serengit” meaning “Endless Plains”
The Serengeti hosts the largest terrestrial mammal migration in the world,
It is one of the Seven Natural Wonders of Africa and one of the ten natural travel wonders of the world
The region contains the Serengeti National Park in Tanzania and several game reserves.
Approx. 70 larger mammal and 500 bird species are found there.
See Video Clip

INTERIOR EAST AFRICA:
THE RIFT VALLEY

INTERIOR EAST AFRICA: MOUNTAINS: MT. KILIMANJARO 19,340 FT

Mt. Kilimanjaro has three volcanic cones, Kibo, Mawenzi and Shira
It is a dormant volcanic mountain in Tanzania.
It is the highest mountain in Africa
It is the highest free-standing mountain in the world (19,341 ft) above sea level.
The term Kilima-Njaro has generally been understood to mean the Mountain (Kilima) of Greatness (Njaro).
However, it may mean the “White” mountain, as the term “Njaro” in former times was been used to denote whiteness,
Does it look like this today? READ ON

INTERIOR EAST AFRICA: MOUNTAINS: MT. KILIMANJARO
THIS IS WHAT IT LOOKS LIKE TODAY
LOSS OF THE GLACIER
How/Why? Nature Made?
Human Made?
The excessive and aggressive felling of trees in the last few decades has led to a decrease in the moisture flow up the mountain slopes, where it is deposited as precipitation
The peak does not get replenished by the water and moisture that the air flow would normally bring from that evapotranspiration from trees
The icepack around Kilimanjaro’s summit is now measured to be approximately 15% of levels measured in 1912.

See Video
1993

2000
Short Answer #2

INTERIOR EAST AFRICA: MOUNTAINS: MT. KENYA 17,058 FT

Mt. Kenya is highest mountain in Kenya
It is the second-highest in Africa, after Kilimanjaro

INTERIOR EAST AFRICA:
ETHIOPIAN HIGHLANDS

INTERIOR EAST/NORTH AFRICA: NILE RIVER CONFLUENCE & SOURCES
The Nile River is comprised of the White Nile whose source is Lake Victoria (discovered by John Hanning Speke) and the Blue Nile whose source is the Ethiopian Highlands and Lake Tana (two rainy seasons)
The Confluence of the two rivers creates the Nile River
The Annual Flood is caused by the Blue Nile

INTERIOR EAST AFRICA:
THE WHITE NILE

In Uganda and The Sudan

INTERIOR EAST AFRICA:
THE BLUE NILE/BLUE NILE FALLS

The Blue Nile brings the Silt from the Ethiopian Highlands that will be deposited along the lower Nile during the annual flood

THE NILE

The Confluence of the White Nile (steady flow) and the Blue Nile (floods due to 2 Rainy Seasons in the Ethiopian Highlands)
The Nile in Cairo Floods in June of the year

EGYPT’S ASWAN HIGH DAM on the NILE RIVER
Completed in 1970
Replaced the Aswan Dam of 1902
An Embankment Dam built across the Nile at the city of Aswan
Relocated Antiquities of Abu-Simbel
Controls the Nile River Flood Waters for Irrigation
Generates Electricity

THE GRAND ETHIOPIAN RENAISSANCE DAM BASIN 2015-2019
Control over the Nile River
Ethiopia, Sudan & Egypt
Rain in the Ethiopian Highlands from June through December

THE GRAND ETHIOPIAN RENAISSANCE DAM LOCATION 2015-2019
Location:
Control over Flood Waters
Hydro-Electricity

THE GRAND ETHIOPIAN RENAISSANCE DAM 2015-2019
The Dam in Ethiopia opening in 2022
Largest in Africa

INTERIOR CENTRAL & SOUTHERN AFRICA

CENTRAL AFRICA SOUTHERN AFRICA

INTERIOR CENTRAL AFRICA: TROPICAL RAINFOREST

In 1980, 15% of the African Continent was Rainforest.
Today, 5-7% of the Continent is Rainforest
Why?

INTERIOR CENTRAL AFRICA: TROPICAL RAINFOREST

The Canopy
Although lush and green, the soil is poor because it can never build humus. Enlarge the photo to see the roots sitting on top of the ground where they get their nutrients from the rain.

INTERIOR CENTRAL AFRICA: THE CONGO/ZAIRE RIVER

INTERIOR CENTRAL AFRICA: CONGO/ZAIRE PHOTO

INTERIOR CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA: THE ZAMBEZI RIVER

INTERIOR CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA: THE ZAMBEZI RIVER

INTERIOR CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA:
THE ZAMBEZI RIVER

INTERIOR CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA:
THE ZAMBEZI DELTA

INTERIOR CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA: VICTORIA FALLS

INTERIOR CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA:
THE SMOKE THAT THUNDERS

See Video

INTERIOR CENTRAL/SOUTHERN AFRICA: VICTORIA FALLS
DRY SEASON (Reduction of Flow)

2019 DROUGHT
How/Why? Nature Made?
Human Made?

INTEIROR SOUTHERN AFRICA: THE KALAHARI DESERT

See Video

INTERIOR SOUTHERN AFRICA: THE KALAHARI–NOT A TRUE DESERT
The Kalahari “Desert” is part of the huge sand basis from the Orange River in South Africa to Angola, in the West to Namibia &in the east to Zimbabwe
Created by the erosion of soft stone formations.
The Wind Shaped the Sand Ridges
In the Last 10 t0 20,000 years, Dunes stabilized with vegetation.
Dominant vegetation: Grasses, Thorny Shrubs & Acacia Trees, can survive long drought periods of more that ten months every year/
Should be called a Dry Savanna because the Dunes do not wander like those of the Namib

WEST AFRICA INTERIOR

LAKE CHAD:
Chad is a local word meaning “large expanse of water”

LAKE CHAD

Lake Chad is the remnant of a former inland sea
At its largest, sometime before 5000 BC (Important Date for the Ancients), Lake Mega-Chad is estimated to have covered an area of 390,000 sq mi, larger than the Caspian Sea is today
1823 Lake Chad first surveyed from shore by Europeans
1823 considered to be one of the largest lakes in the world then
In 1851, German explorer Heinrich Barth carried a boat overland from Tripoli across the Sahara Desert by camel and made the first European waterborne survey

THE DRYING OF LAKE CHAD

Lake Chad shrank as much as 95% from about 1963 to 1998

LAKE CHAD

WEST AFRICA INTERIOR:
MT. CAMEROON 13,454 FT
Mt. Cameroon’s indigenous name is Mongo ma Ndemi (“Mountain of Greatness”).
It is the highest point in sub-Saharan western and central Africa
It is the fourth most prominent peak in Africa and the 31st most prominent in the world.

1986 LAKE NYOS DISASTER
Lake Nyos and Lake Monoun are both crater lakes about a mile square located in remote mountain areas of northwest Cameroon, 
Village
August 21st gases from Mount Cameroon volcano came out of the lake
settled in the valley and killed all humans, animals, and insects

Lake Nyos 8 days after Event

WEST AFRICA INTEIROR:
THE FOUTA DJALLON HIGHLANDS

Dry Season

Rainy Season Cloud over the Fouta Djallon

WEST AFRICA INTERIOR:
THE NIGER RIVER BASIN
The Niger is the largest river in western Africa
The Niger is the third-longest river in Africa, exceeded only by the Nile and the Congo/Zaire River
The Niger is the world’s 11th-longest river at 2,590 miles.
The river begins in Guinea and runs east from Guinea, through Mali, Niger, Benin, and Nigeria.
There is an almost 90-degree turn south, to the Gulf of Guinea.

Short Answer #1
Continue Reading—includes the Inland Niger Delta

WEST AFRICA INTERIOR:
THE NIGER RIVER
The Niger is called Jeliba or Joliba “great river” in Mande; Orimiri or Orimili “great water” in Igbo; Egerew n-Igerewen “river of rivers” in Tuareg; Isa Ber “big river” in Songhay; Kwara in Hausa; and Oya in Yoruba.
The origin of the name Niger, which originally applied only to the middle reaches of the river at Timbuktu.
Timbuktu traded with the Mediterranean Basin (N-S Gold-Salt Trade) and Latin influence that altered the Tuareg name to, “black”

INLAND NIGER DELTA
The Niger River has Two Deltas:
The River was originally two Rivers: The Djoliba and the Quorra.
The Djoliba’s Headwaters were in Guinea’s highlands
The Djoliba’s Delta is at the confluence of the Niger [Djoliba] and the Bani Rivers
The Quorra’s Headwaters were in what is now the Sahara Desert
The Quorra’s Delta is the Mouth of the Niger [Quorra] River at the Ocean (aka as the Oil Rivers because of the Oil Palms grown in the region
As the Sahara grew, the contours of the land caused the two rivers to “join” which makes the route of river move from North to East to South
The River provided the Trade Oppotunities for the Empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai
The Trans-Saharan Caravan system provided Trade Opportunities for the Empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai

WEST AFRICA INTERIOR:
TROPICAL RAIN FOREST

KAKUM NATIONAL FOREST,
GHANA

WEST AFRICA INTERIOR: RAINFOREST IN THE CANOPY

WEST AFRICA INTERIOR:
TROPICAL VEGETATION

WEST AFRICA INTERIOR:
SLASH & BURN AGRICULTURE
They underbrush and non-fruit bearing trees cut
The underbrush is set on fire
The ashes become the fertilizer
Planting is done with a digging stick; plants each individual seed
The ground cover protects the seeds from torrential rain

WEST AFRICA INTERIOR:
PALM OIL FROM PALM NUTS

INLAND NORTH AFRICA

NORTH INTERIOR
ATLAS MOUNTAINS

The Atlas is a mountain range across the northwestern stretch of Africa extending about 1,600 mi through Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia
The highest peak is Toubkal, with an elevation of 13,665 ft in southwestern Morocco
The Atlas ranges separate the Mediterranean and Atlantic coastlines from the Sahara Desert.

TIBESTI MOUNTAINS
OASIS

The Tibesti Mts. are located in central Sahara, primarily located in the extreme north of Chad, with a small extension into southern Libya.
The highest peak in the range, Emi Koussi, lies to the south at a height of 11,302 ft. and is the highest point in both Chad and the Sahara
Tibesti, which means “place where the mountain people live,” is the domain of the Toubou people.
The Toubou live mainly along the wadis, on rare oases where palm trees and limited grains grow

TIBESTI MOUNTAINS

THE SAHARA
The Sahara Desert extends
Eastward from the Atlantic Ocean some 3,000 miles to the Nile River and the Red Sea, and
Southward from the Atlas Mountains of Morocco and the Mediterranean shores more than 1,000 miles to the savannah called the Sahel.

THE SAHARA

HOW THE SAHARA BECAME A DESERT
Climate scientist Gavin Schmidt, of NASA’s Goddard Institute for Space Studies, explained
c. 8,000 years ago, the Earth’s orbit was slightly different compared to how it is today.
The tilt changed from around 24.1 degrees to the present-day 23.5 degrees.

THE SAHARA BECOMES A DESERT
There is now considerable evidence to show that the Sahara used to have a grassland ecosystem and was a much wetter place than it is now. 

THE SAHARA

IN THE DESERT

SAHARA SANDSTORM

DJADO PLATEAU

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