Posted: February 26th, 2023

Human Development Chapters

Read the Chapters (ATTACHED) then respond regarding the content of each Chapter as you would in a face-to-face class. State your point of view. 

Please don’t summarize the reading.  Try to make this an interaction like one that would occur in a live classroom.  

Length should be at least approximately 300 words per Chapter for full credit.

Chapter 6: Emotional and Social Development in the Infancy and Toddlerhood Years

Chapter Review

Book Title: An Advanced Lifespan Odyssey for Counseling Professionals
Printed By: Dwight Woods (dwight1025@aol.com)
© 2017 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning

Chapter Review

Summary

A parent is the earliest nurturer of the infant’s emotional intelligence, the ability to
successfully navigate the emotional brain/thinking brain system. An infant within the first
year generates the primary emotions of happiness, anger, sadness, fear, surprise, interest,
and disgust, using crying, gestures, and movements to convey them. Toddlers begin to
recognize secondary emotions, first self-conscious emotions and later self-evaluative
emotions. An infant’s culture plays a prominent role in how emotions are conceptualized and
shown. An infant from a collectivistic culture will likely learn to mask emotions and place
more emotional energy on the outcome of a negative event, whereas an infant from an
individualistic culture will likely be shaped to express emotions freely and place more
emotional energy on who was responsible for causing a negative event.

Freud and Erikson held contrasting views regarding emotional development. Freud believed
that one’s personality and emotional development are determined in early childhood, based
on how well the parent was able to balance the child’s basic needs without over- or under-
gratifying them. For Erikson, the development of the personality and emotions is a lifelong,
continuous process that he called a cradle-to-grave approach. Freud and Erikson both
designed stage models of development; however, Freud’s stages are psychosexual in
nature, while Erikson’s are psychosocial.

Attachment is the mutual, sustainable bond that forms between the infant and parent, and
the type of attachment depends on how well the parent helps the infant to reduce her
distress. A parent who consistently provides a stable relationship for the infant, one in which
the parent responds to her needs and signals for comfort during times of distress, with close
contact and loving touch, will teach the infant’s brain to balance the quick, emotional
responses of her amygdala with the more mindful, decision-making responses of the
neocortex. Securely attached children learn to regulate their own levels of cortisol because
they feel confident that they can manage distressing life situations.

Psychoanalysts viewed the infant’s attachment as originating from the mother’s ability to
satisfy the infant’s basic drive for food during the oral stage of psychosexual development,
after which the infant directs emotional energy from the food to the mother, a process known
as cathexis. However, Bowlby’s theory of attachment, which diverged radically from the
psychoanalytic explanation, held that infants are innately predisposed to form attachments
and will attach most securely to parents who best respond to signals of distress. Bowlby
created a four-phase model for the development of infant–parent attachments. Ainsworth, a
colleague of Bowlby, developed an experimental procedure called the “strange situation” to

assess the security of attachments in children 10–24 months old. Ainsworth and her
research colleagues identified three patterns of attachment: secure attachment, and two
types of insecure attachment [avoidant and ambivalent (resistant) attachment]. Main and
Solomon later identified a fourth, and least secure, pattern of attachment known as
disorganized-disoriented attachment. Infants and toddlers are able to form secure
attachments with people in addition to the mother and father (such as siblings,
grandparents, and professional caregivers) as long as those individuals provide a
consistently stable relationship. Cultures differ in how a securely attached child is defined.
Whereas American or German parents may view an independent child as one who is
securely attached, a Japanese parent is more likely to consider a securely attached child as
one who is obedient and compliant.

Temperament is a newborn brain’s biological predisposition to interpret and respond to
stimulation. Although temperament has a biological basis and tends to remain stable across
the lifespan, the child’s experiences and parental intervention are dominant influences in
shaping the child’s temperament. Thomas and Chess conducted a longitudinal study of
infant and childhood temperament, identifying factors of temperament including activity
level, approach or withdrawal to stimuli, adaptability, and attention span. Kagan’s research
on the differences in brain activity among children who were timid, bold, upbeat, and
melancholy, based on inborn differences in brain circuitry, demonstrates the stability of
temperament over time. An inhibited temperament can be detected in infants: If left
untreated, the child is likely to develop shyness, social anxiety, and depression. However,
parents and counselors can help to reform the neural circuitry with gentle and consistent
challenges for the child to face. Temperament can be measured using surveys,
questionnaires, and interviews. When a child’s temperament and the parent’s style of
parenting match, this relationship is known as goodness of fit.

An infant or toddler who shows developmental delays in socialization and communication
may be diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Parents can receive early
interventions for their child, such as physical and behavioral therapy, and specialized
educational programs, as well as support services for themselves.

Rochat’s levels of self-awareness chart the increasing ability to differentiate the self as a
unique being from all others. A newborn shows implicit self-awareness by distinguishing
another person touching her cheek from her own hand touching her cheek. This native
ability to self-differentiate matures steadily, so that the 18-month-old toddler can
demonstrate explicit self-awareness during the classic rouge experiment. Around age 2 the
infant is using the first person pronouns to self-identify.

The capacity to practice effortful control, stifling one’s dominant response to a stimulus in
favor of expressing a subdominant response, detecting errors, and engaging in planning,
can be observed in a toddler by the end of the first year. This extremely important skill
requires the toddler to engage physical, cognitive, emotional, and social abilities, as the
infant must redirect cognitions and behaviors to those that would not have instinctively been
a first choice but are required by culture to stay safe or to follow socially accepted practices.

Children who have difficulty practicing effortful control have problems self-regulating, finding
it challenging to control their reactions to stress, keep their attention focused, and decode
their own and others’ mental states. Early nurturing experiences, especially parenting style,
correlate strongly with a child’s well-developed ability for effortful control.

On the path of social development, infants and toddlers use social referencing, interpreting
the facial and/or verbal emotional expressions of people they trust to make decisions about
ambiguous events, such as whether to cross a visual cliff or touch a new toy. Although
previous studies have placed the emergence of this important skill between 7 and 9 months,
recent research indicates that infants as young as 3 months may use social referencing.

Parents and the larger culture help to socialize infants’ and toddlers’ emotions by providing
continual feedback about how to join the fabric of their society. The brain of a child whose
psychic script includes the regular practice of effortful control will activate empathy and guilt
appropriately, helping the child to skillfully interact with others. While infants and young
toddlers often play alone or with parents, by age 2 many toddlers engage in interactive play
with other children, allowing them to practice taking others’ points of view. Children who
have difficulty gaining peer group acceptance because of deficits in skillful social interaction
may benefit from specialized coaching interventions.

The addition of the newborn to the family requires all members to adjust their sense of
identity, roles, and expectations. Aside from engaging in the continual care and affection
required to nurture a newborn, parents who co-parent also navigate the dual roles of parent
and partner, often making relational, financial, logistical, and employment changes. Siblings
find themselves reorganizing their idea of where they fit in the family life cycle, and their
responses can range from jealousy and confusion to bonding and caregiving. Grandparents
have a unique opportunity to foster the development of the next generation.

The odyssey from birth to age 3 is a significant journey for all travelers involved: infants,
toddlers, parents, family members, and counselors. For the infants and toddlers, how
amazing it must be to embark at birth, and three years later be a person who is virtually
indistinguishable in form, size, ability, communication style, and thought process from where
one began. While the toddler’s temperament may endure if not reshaped by specific
intervention, the contextual elements of genetics, environment, stimulation, and
relationships provide the raw materials for each child’s brain to craft itself into a wholly
unique being. For parents, there is no precisely laid-out treasure map to follow, as each
child is wired differently and responds distinctively. However, we do know that optimal
development emerges from a closely attached, relationship-dependent process, requiring
parents to vigilantly monitor the minute-by-minute changes in their child’s landscape and be
willing to make course corrections in the way they interact with their child. Counselors are
given a privileged invitation to accompany a family into the intimate world of raising children,
with its attendant triumphs and struggles. Counselors have a special role, as parents share
their vulnerabilities and look to shine a light into places that they themselves may not see.
Counselors are a highly valued member of an expedition team that sets its sights on safe

passage through the uncertain, but always fascinating, terrain of infant and toddler
development.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all of the wonderful caregivers who so generously shared
stories about their children, making the concepts from this chapter come to life, and Stefanie
Moore, M.Ed., for her research assistance.

Chapter 6: Emotional and Social Development in the Infancy and Toddlerhood Years Chapter Review
Book Title: An Advanced Lifespan Odyssey for Counseling Professionals
Printed By: Dwight Woods (dwight1025@aol.com)
© 2017 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning

© 2023 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any means –
graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner – without the written permission of the copyright holder.

Chapter 7: The Preschool Years: Early Childhood Physical and Cognitive Development

Chapter Review

Book Title: An Advanced Lifespan Odyssey for Counseling Professionals
Printed By: Dwight Woods (dwight1025@aol.com)
© 2017 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning

Chapter Review

Summary

During the preschool years, children continue to grow, but in spurts rather than a continuous
growth trajectory. Normal weight and height ranges are broad to accommodate the
considerable variability of individual growth rates found among preschool children. The brain
grows rapidly during the early childhood years, and it has plasticity that can allow for
adaptation and adjustment following brain injury.

The development of large and small motor skills is very important during the preschool
years, and lack of appropriate development can hinder cognitive and social growth. Children
should be encouraged to play and engage in large motor activities. This is particularly
important due to the tendency toward sedentary activity in U.S. society. Small motor skills
include using scissors, buttoning, drawing, and writing. The development of small motor
skills is vital to the long-term academic success of the young child.

Minor illnesses are common in preschool children. It is very important for children to adhere
to an immunization schedule for their own health and to avoid the emergence of more
dangerous diseases. Children from lower SES strata have a lower rate of immunization due
to lack of access to health care and lack of funds; they are also more likely to have dental
decay or caries, which is a preventable disease. Again, lack of funds and access to dental
care are major contributing factors. The most alarming health problem among young
children is the rising rate of obesity. Better education for families on health and exercise is
suggested to counteract the obesity trend. The most common cause of death in early
childhood is unintentional injury; education about home safety can provide injury prevention.

Vision and hearing impairment create academic and social problems for children, and
screening to identify these impairments is crucial. Preschool children may also experience
sleep problems. Having a routine and security items can help children form good sleep
habits. It is not uncommon for young children to experience nightmares and night terrors,
especially during times of stress. In many families, co-sleeping is practiced. While there are
people who argue against co-sleeping, there is little evidence that it is emotionally harmful,
and it is a norm for many cultures.

Both Piaget and Vygotsky had an immense impact on preschool education. Most preschool
aged children are in Piaget’s preoperational stage, which includes two substages:
preconceptual and intuitive. Piaget viewed learning as occurring thorough a process of
assimilation and accommodation whereby new information is either aligned with an existing
schema or adapted into a new schema. Preoperational children are egocentric in their
worldview. Vygotsky’s contribution to the field of cognitive development was relatively

unheard of in the West until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Vygotsky’s concepts of the
zone of proximal development and scaffolding are widely used in preschools.

Information processing is the mechanism by which we attain and store knowledge. The
information processing model includes the sensory register, working memory, and long-term
memory. Another aspect of cognitive development is language. Children must master the
components of language and the rules of grammar during the preschool years. Language
and literacy skills are crucial for education, and early childhood education forms the
foundation for future academic success and is vital for long-term achievement.

Chapter 7: The Preschool Years: Early Childhood Physical and Cognitive Development Chapter Review
Book Title: An Advanced Lifespan Odyssey for Counseling Professionals
Printed By: Dwight Woods (dwight1025@aol.com)
© 2017 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning

© 2023 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any means –
graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner – without the written permission of the copyright holder.

Chapter 8: The Preschool Years: Early Childhood Emotional and Social Development

Chapter Review

Book Title: An Advanced Lifespan Odyssey for Counseling Professionals
Printed By: Dwight Woods (dwight1025@aol.com)
© 2017 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning

Chapter Review

Summary

Erikson is pivotal to our understanding of children’s psychosocial development. Erikson’s
stage theory spans the lifespan and is composed of eight stages that have specific tasks or
crises that must be resolved. Preschool children fall into the initiative versus guilt stage,
wherein children begin to develop interests and independent activities. Failure to
successfully resolve this stage will result in guilt.

Alfred Adler’s individual psychology theory has contributed a great deal to our
understanding of children and families. Adler viewed behavior as goal directed and
purposeful and believed that people wanted to belong. Adler’s four goals of misbehavior
(i.e., attention, power, revenge, and inadequacy) provide a helpful conceptualization for
understanding why children misbehave. Adler’s concept of birth order provides insight into
child behavior; however, Adler cautioned that perceived psychological order matters most,
not just the order of birth.

Family systems theory postulates that children should be viewed within the context of
multiple systems, including family of birth, extended family, community, and the larger
society. Families should be defined in a broad manner, and it should be understood that
there are many different types of family configurations. Within these various types of
families, there is a progression across the lifespan with special challenges at each stage.
Families with young children face challenges related to the time and energy put forth in
caring for children. The degree to which a family has cohesion and flexibility can indicate the
overall health of the family system and the family’s ability to cope with stress and
developmental change.

Emotional development begins to occur during early childhood as children develop more
advanced language skills. Identifying and understanding emotions leads to emotional
competence and self-regulation. A significant emotional competency is the development of
empathy. Self-regulation is important as growing children learn how to manage anger in a
pro-social manner and deal with fear.

Very little research has been conducted regarding mental disorders in early childhood, but
the rate of psychotropic medication use in preschoolers is on the rise. Common diagnoses
in preschoolers include ADHD, ODD, CD, depression, and anxiety. Diagnostic criteria
should be adapted to fit this unique population. Another issue facing young children is abuse
and neglect. Mandated reporters should be aware of signs of abuse and neglect and should
report suspected abuse to child protective services.

The social development of a child occurs in many ways. When a child is born, the most
important characteristic that is communicated by parents is the child’s sex. There are
various theoretical approaches to understanding sex and gender role socialization, including
biological, psychoanalytic, behavioral, cognitive, and interpretivist approaches. It is
important to realize the impact of the complex intersection between gender, race, and SES
when exploring the socialization of the preschool child.

School and day care settings are major aspects of child socialization. These settings include
child care in the home, family child care, and child care centers. How a child is parented is
also a critical aspect of their social development. Parenting styles include authoritarian,
authoritative, and permissive. Children socialize through play and friendships. Play is their
work, and social skills aimed at accessing play groups and making friends are critical to
child development.

Chapter 8: The Preschool Years: Early Childhood Emotional and Social Development Chapter Review
Book Title: An Advanced Lifespan Odyssey for Counseling Professionals
Printed By: Dwight Woods (dwight1025@aol.com)
© 2017 Cengage Learning, Cengage Learning

© 2023 Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this work may by reproduced or used in any form or by any means –
graphic, electronic, or mechanical, or in any other manner – without the written permission of the copyright holder.