Posted: February 26th, 2023

Position Paper

 You will select a large organization, profit or nonprofit, that has recently gone through significant change. Choose an organization that you can find substantial written material documenting the change effort. Analyze the organization on the basis of the readings covered in this course and write a 5–6 page paper discussing the change effort. APA Format!

 I expect you to have a minimum of 5 citations from the textbook. You are expected to utilize materials from the course and search for other sources of materials.  (3 chapters attached to cite from)

 

Requirements

The paper should follow this outline:

  1. Introduction: Describe the situation, organization, and context for the change?
  2. Analysis: Analyze the approach taken by the change agent(s), and address the following:

    the image of the type of change held by the change agent,
    the “culture” of the setting that is changing and the role culture played in the change,
    the extent to which the (envisioned and actual) change was first or second order vs. adaptive or transformational,
    the method(s) for implementing change,
    the vision for the change, and
    how the change was communicated

  3. Overall Evaluation: Evaluate the quality of the change agent’s work based on class readings.
  4. Recommendations: Include recommendations suggesting what steps could have been taken to increase the success of the project.

 Grading

Criteria for grading the paper will include:

  • Use of materials from the course. I expect that your paper will make a number of references to class readings in addition to other source material.
  • The use of supporting data. If you make an assertion such as “Morale at the company was at an all-time low,” on what do you base this? Or, if you suggest, “This project has had an enormous impact on customer satisfaction,” how do you know this to be true? While it is acceptable to occasionally insert some subjectivity into the analysis – be clear to identify what is a subjective opinion and what is based on more objective data sources.
  • The quality of your conclusions and recommendations.

Chapte

Change Managem

ent

Perspective

Learning objectives

By

the

endofthischapteryoushou-dbeab-e

to

医さ団園 Underst

and

andidentifythefactorsthatcancausechangetofaiー,

E雨 四墨 塾 Assessthestrengthsandiimitationsofcheck1istsformana9ing

chang

effectively

「LQ--蟹副 Evaluatetheadvantagesofstage modelsofchange managennent.

匝IE至重軍司 Assessthetheoreticalandpracticaーva-ueoftheprocessPerspectiveonchange.

「Lof輔園Understandandapp-ycontingencyapproachestochange management.

”了hequest′on′sがrw力os

go′ngro/erme/′r’swh

 

′sgomgtostopme.

AynRand,writerandphilosopher

                                   

  

       

 

 

  

319

320

 

ChaPterlO

 

C/7の堰e崩超′mgの??emβのPecr和郎

optionsfor Managing

Change

Chnngt,1~ Dim,ptiv,二,一Liv(, with.t - - 一

soatoppotyoftheorgazaon.This

is

not

 

someth

ing

 

that

 

 

be

 

third

 

orfourth

down

 

in

 

he

 

CEO’s

 

list

 

ofthings

 

he

 

or

 

she

must

 

do.VVe

 

view

those

 

characteristics

 

as

beingnecessaryco‐travellerstodelivering

truetransformationofthecompany・(Bucyetal,,
2017a,pp.2-3).

Atruetransformationisdisruptive.ltdoesn’t

justwork withtheexisting9overnance,

the

existingprocesses,theexistingbudgetingcy-

cle,theexistingwaysofdoingthings.ltisgo-

ing

 

to

 

disrupt, And

 

it’s

 

going

 

to create

challengeandtensionandfricti

on

 

intheor-

ganization.Because

 

it

 

is

 

so disruptive,it’s

TheperspeCtivesdiscussedinthischapterinc1udechange managementChecMists,

stage

models,andprocessandcontingencytheories,They o掻eradvice on managing

change,

butmakeno mentionofthepersonalstylesandpre危rencesofindividualchange manag-

ers.Letusfirst6‐1lthisgap,

The Directorand Navigatorlmages ofChange Management

1iwoofourskimagesofchange managementareparticularlyrelevanttothe

approaches

exploredinthischapter.TheαZreczorimageunderpinsthechangemanagementapproaches

associatedwiththeworkoflargeconsultingcompanies,andalsoofacademicswho work

aschangeconsultantsinthisfield,Those who adoptsuch approachestake astrategi

view,adopting a pragmatic, managerialistapproachto

 

achievinglasting

organizational

change.

The

 

chec*山sts

 

and

 

stage modelsthat we

 

explore 魚1lintot

his

 

category. They

suggestthatchangecanbe managedandcontrolledinapredictable manneraslongas

the

 

correctsteps

 

aretaken,in moreorlessthecorrectsequence, However,giventhe

numberofdi錐erentsetsofrecipesand丘ameworksthatareavailable,itisnotalways

cle

ar

whichtoadopt,orthecriteriaon whichthechoiceshouldbemade.

 

Contingencyframeworkscanalsobeseenasconsistentwiththeメケecわri血age.Rather

thanclaimingtohavediscovered“theonebestapproach,
”however,these丘ameworksargue

that“itdepends“on anumberofcontext 魚ctors,such asthescaleand urgency

ofthe

proposedchanges.Fore×ample,oneofthesecont無gencyframeworks,thechangekaleido-

scope(BalogunetaL,2016)doesnoto爺erPrescriptiveadviceonhowtoimplementchange

inparticularcontexts,That丘ameworkinsteadhighlights免rthechange managerthecon-

textualissuesto consider whenreaching aninあrmedjudgmentwithregardto change

implementationdesignoptions,Thisapproachisalsoconsistenttosomeextentwiththe

′7αyZg防げimageofchange management,Changecanbecontrolledinpart,butexternal

魚ctors(contextualenablersandconstraints,competinginterests)can generateemergent

andunintendedoutcomesoverwhichthechange managerhaslittleornoinfluence.

 

The

 

idea

 

ofestablishing
“fit”

between

 

change

implementation

 

and organizational

contextisnotconsistentwithaprocessualview ofchange.Processtheoriesseechange

unあldingovertimeina messyanditerative wayandthusrelyontheimageofchange

manageras“の’Zgのor.Here,thechangeoutcomesareshapedbyacombinationoffactors

                                         

        

 

 

   

ChaPterlO

 

C方の増ど崩‘”〃”ge′77e用弁eなlpeメルes

 

321

     

 

 

 

 

    

includingthepast,present,andfuturecの7rexzinwhichtheorganizationfunctions;the

  

  

 

 

  

     

sz心“α打ceofthechange;theimP1ementation〃mcesg刀o/mcq/わeんαvzor,insideand out-

 

   

 

      

side

 

the

 

organization; and

 

the

 

interactions

 

between

 

these

 

魚ctors (Dawson

 

and

   

 

       

んDdriopoulos,2017),Theroleofthechange managerisnotto direct,buttoidenti尊

 

 

 

 

 

        

options,accumulateresources, monitor progress,andto′mwgqre

 

a paththroughthe

 

 

         

complexity.

 

 

 

 

 

          

ltistherefbreimportantforchange managerstobeawareof,and perhapson m

any

 

 

           

occasionsto putto

 

one

 

side,theirpre発rredimage

 

ofchange management.ltis

 

also

 

            

importantthatmanagersarecomあrtablewiththeiractions,withregardtobothpersonal

             

capabilityandhowactionsareperceivedtofitwiththecontext,However,implementation

             

designdecisionsshouldideallybemoreheavilyinfluencedbythecontext魚ctorsthatwe

             

exploreinthischapterthanbypersonalconsiderations.

圏園圏麗 W′hy Change Fai

ls

ルリノの?ew加 加瀞?仰げ mαdeqmな放たe 加s“everかたdのりノ効力7g″gMノ. (A1bertEinstein)

方房雄お『庇方rsrsreprollノqrds蔵/超re. (Homersimpson)

lnthischapter,weexploreapproachestoimLP1ementingorganizationalchangeeがectively,
drawing on

 

arangeofchange management,processual,and

 

contingency perspectives.
First,however,wewillexplorewhychange態ils,lfweunderstandthecommon mistakes,
perhapswecanavoidthem.

 

Askagroup ofmanagerstoreflectontheirexperienceandtoidentifywhattodoto

makeorganizationalchange 魚il.Theirresponseusuallycomesintwostages.First,they
laugh.Second,theygeneratewithoutdifficultyalistofpracticalactionstoguaranteethat

aninitiativewillnotbesuccessful.Tablelo,lillustratesthetypicalresultsofsuchadis‐
cussion,Thissuggeststwoconclusions.First,ensurmgthatchange魚ils-shouldonewish
todothat-isnotdi甘icult.Therearemanytoolsatone’sdisposal,involvingacombination

ofactionsandinactions.Second,ifwehavesuch agoodunderstandingofwhatcan

go

wrong,thengettingitrightshouldbeeasy.justturnthenegativesaround:clearvlslon,

TABLEIO.I
Howtoハ4ake

    

chooSethemoStexpenSiVewaytodoit

     

CommitmentWith0utーeaderShipSupp0rt

ChangeFail:A

   

Demotivatethegro

up

 

 

              

Donotrecognizethepowerofthetea

ハ4anagement

    

Distortthevision

  

 

 

 

               

Divertattentionandresources
View

        

Don,tbuyintothe

process

             

Don’tfollowtheprocess

              

トlighlightpastfailures

                

トlighlightthenegatives

           

Lackofhonesty

  

  

                 

Nocommunication

           

Politicalgames

  

                  

Setupsilos

           

下eamupwith

others

                  

下oomanypoliciesandprocedures

322

 

ChaPte「1O

 

C/m′7ge脳久のmgeme′7rReな刀ecr′1’es

           

commitmentandleadershipsupport,honestco]mmLunication,simplicity,breakdoWnthe

           

snos,highlightsuccessesand positives.-andsoon.Sadly,whilethisapproachishelpful,

            


gettingitright”isnotthiseasy.

         

From hisresearchintooverloocompanies(mostbutnotanAmerican),John Kotter

       

(2007;2012a)arguesthattransあrmationalchangeso貴en 魚ilbecauseofthe mistakesthat

           

areidentifiedintable

 

lo,2.Understandingwhatnotto do, Kotterturnsthese mistakes

           

intoapositivemodelofsuccessfultransit)rmation,Thatinvolvescarefulplanning,Worldng

           

throughtheseissuesmoreorlessinsequence,andnotmissingorrushinganyofthem-

          

whichtakestime,However,giventherapidpaceofcontelnporarychange, many organl-

           

zationsperhapstrytotaketoo manyshortcuts,toputchangeinplacequic]=ly,andgetit

            

wrongasaresult.

         

亙thoughit maybean oversimplificationtoclaim thatsuccessfulchangejustmeans

            

avoidingthese mistakes,theyshouldbeavoidednevertheless,ltisalsoimportanttorec‐

            

ognizethatthereare manyofthese mistakes,andthatinanyparticularsetting,several

            

ofthose 魚ctors maybecombiningtoensurethatthechangeprogram 魚ils.Successor

            

魚ilurecanrarelybeexplainedwithre定rencetoonlyasingle 魚ctor,VVhatarethecosts

           

involvedinavoidingthese mistakes?AI1mostalltheremediesarecost‐neutral,involving

           

changesinleadership

 

and management

style

 

andin organizationalpolicies

 

and proce-

           

dures,lnshort,whileensuringthatchangewill魚ilinvolveslittleornocost,mostofthe

            

actionsrequiredto”
getitright

’’areaISO 丘ee.

TABLEIO.2
W〆hyT1ans節rmationE掻ortsFail☆

Mistakes

             

NatureandRemedy

~ourgency

           

ーfemployeesdon’tseetheneed,thentheyWillnotbemotivatedtoChange;

        

   

                    

【nへ【ヘバ^ n〔(h十

 

hh”ぐ+

 

hr′、つ+‘[、q

 

o′r、hごと

 

r、f

 

=r〔とュn′.・′

                 

tocelebrate;managementshouーdcreateandrewardshort‐term wlns.

Premoru「ev′crory

      

Thejobisnotdonewhenimprovementsappear;itisamistaketo“declare

      

      

     

  

    

    

                     

ChaPte「1O

 

Cメ7の増eル超′70gの77の7rRersPecr印弧

 

323

園園園圃 Change by Checklist

          

勤ereなαcerrq!′?〆効け′′7欲の7gどの’の?豹α!gねZzbe方om 彰〆lollりなeノαs/ 卿ve珍zmdかdye/-

          

/′′?gZ〃”srqge‐の僻ん ”な 堺renqcom脆ァrro靴扉o′7es脚立『/m mメムe虜“なed/′?′?ewp超ces,

        

                                  

(Washingtonlrving)

         

Thelandscapeofpracticaladviceあrthechange managerisdominatedbysimplecheck

         

lists.Thesehavealsobeendescribedas“〃-steprecipes,
” where〃isthenumberofitems

         

onthelist,Thisapproachisopentothecriticismthatitoversim‐plifiesacomplexprocess.

         

Howeversimplified,itisprobablyaccurateto claim that,in mostcases,ifthechange

         

managerdoesnotあ11OW mostoftheadviceinthesechecklists,thenthechange

program

         

couldrunintotrouble.

          

Checklistapproachesto change managementassumethattheprocessislogicaland

             

linearandcantherelt)rebecontrolledbyplanningandthen長)1lowingthecorrectset

of

           

steps.This“rationallinear” modelofchangehasbeen widelycriticized,butitremains

            

popularwithpro花ssionalbodiesand managementconsultancies.Thisisprobablybecause

         

thesechecklistsorrecipescodifywhatisusuallya messyanditerativeprocessandthus

           

oぼerthebusy change

 

manager

 

straightfbrward

 

advice

 

on whatto

 

dotoimprovethe

             

chancesofsuccess.lnthissection,wewillconsiderthreetypicalchecklistsandconsider

             

howthechangeagentshouldchoosebetweenthem.

The Boston Consultin9 Group
’s D-CE ModeI

D【anagementconsultingcompaniestyPicallydeveloptheirownrecipes,o仕en withamem-
orableacronym.TheDICE modeldevelopedbytheBoston ConsultingGroup,食)rexam-

pie,identifies化’ur 魚ctorsthatdetermine whethera changeprogram will“flyordie”:
Duration,lntegrity,Commitment,andE鎖ort.These化’ur魚ctorsareoutHnedintableio.3

(Sirkinetai.,2005).

TABLEIO.3

    

pーcEFactor

   

Meaning

DICE÷“/aIY

our

Changepr。gram

  

DUro”on

      

Thedurationoftimeuntiltheprogramiscompletedifithasashortlife

F・yorDie?

                 

span;ifnotshort,theamountoftimebetweenrevjewsormilestones

        

′〃fegr#y

     

Theprojectteam’sperformanceintegrity;jtsabiーitytocompletethe

                     

initiativeontime,whichdependsonmembers’sk旧sre-ativetothe

                

projecrsre

quirements

           

commたmen士

   

Thecommitmentdisplayedbytopmanagementandemployeeswho

                     

areaffected

           

E航or『

        

TheeffortrequiredthatisoVerandabovetheusualdemandson

                

employees

Program

oftimeshort,thea

team’sper

time,whic

quirements

Theprojectt

initiativeont

projecでsreq

BasedonsirkinetaL,200

 

Changemanagersareadvisedtocalculatescoresあreachofthe DICE 魚ctors.Forexam-

Pie,DurationscoreshighlyiftheoveranPrqect前rilescaleisshortwithfrequentreviews

but

getsalowscoreifreviewsaremorethaneightmonthsaPart.lntegrityscoreswellifaskiUed

and‐motivatedPrQiectteam hasacaPableandresPectedleaderandscoresbadlyifthose

324

 

ChaPterlO

 

C′70′7ge脳超′mgie′77gmReなz7此方-’es

          

発aturesareabsent.Adethosewhow皿 beal胃ectedbythechangeenthusiasticandsuPPortive

       

(high Co凹面tmentscore),oraretheyconcerned andobstructive(lowscore)?Doesthe

       

prqiectrequireasmaUamountofadditionalwork(highE餓ortscore)oralotofeXtrae掻ort

       

ontopofanalleadyheavyload(lowscore)?ThecombinedscoresreveaIWhetherapr ect

          

ismtheレvZ′7Zの7色thetノげび Zの7色 orthelyoezの7e.Knowing wherethe weaknessesare,

           

managementcandeveloPanactionP1anto movethechange中tothew/′7zの2e,

               

ReducingthetasktoFourdimens1onsprovidesreassurancethat,inspiteoftheuncer-

           

taintiesand untidiness,changecanbecontro11ed and工エーanagede”コective1yina moreor

           

lesslogicalandpredictablemanner.AIIS0,havingtohandlesuchasmallnumberofissues

            

appearstolessenthescaleofthechallengethatthechange managerhasto 魚ce.Success

           

appearstobeprettymuchguaranteed,

Prosci’s ADKAR ModeI

TheADKARchangemodelwasdevelopedbytheconsultingcompanyProsci(Hiatt,2004;
2006;Hiattand Creasey,2012),Theacronym isbased onfiveelements: Awareness,
Desire,Knowledge,Ability,and Rein貴)rcement,公4anycommentatorshaveobservedthat

organizationschangebychangingonepersonatatime(e,g,,MCFarlandand Goldsworthy,

2013).Followingthatpremise,the あcusoftheADKAR‐modellieswiththeカメZVZメヱ臓声

who Willbeinvolvedinanda]mectedbychange,ln other words,thechange manageris

advisedtoconcentrateonindividuaIAwareness,individuaIDesire,individuaIKnowledge,
individuaIAbility,andtheextentto which Rein食)rcementis meaningfulandrelevantto

theindividual,TheA[軽く一ARelementsaredescribedmtable

 

lo.4,

TABLEIO.4

    

ADKARE-ements

       

Factorslnfluencing

ChangeSuccess

ADKAR‐Five

E1e】mーents

       

Aworeness

            

lndividualviewsofthecurrentStateandProblems

.nnuencing

     

oftheneedforchange

    

Credibi-ityofthoseSendingtheawarenessmessages

ChangeSuccess

                       

Circulationofrumorsormis

infor

mation

                                    

Contestabilityofthereasonsforchange

           

behavior

             

Timeavailabletodeveloptherequiredski”s

                               

Availabiーityofresourcestosupportskills

development

            

Re′〃fi。rcemenr

          

MeaningfulandspecifictothePersonaffected

           

tosustainthechange

     

LinkWithdemonstrableProgress

                                  

NonegativeconsequenCes

                               

Accountabilitysystemtocontinual-yreinforcethechange

Source:Hiatt,J.2006.

                                  

ChaPte「1O

 

Cメ7α′7ge崩‘”′mgの77emReなPecrかes

 

325

  

ASWith DICE,thechange managercan useAJ)KAR asadiagn○stican‐d p1anning
tool,toidentifyareasofPotentialresistance,todeveloPcommunicationandsta茸 devel-

oPment

 

strategies,andto

 

strengthen

 

changeimP1ementation byaddressinggaps

 

and

problems,PayingcloseattentiontoindividuaIPerceptions,strengths,and weaknessesis
astrengthoftheAL1)※]ARapproach,Particu1ar1ywithregardtogeneratingenthusiasm,
overcom・ngresistance,and

 

develoPing new skills.lnaddition,thisis

 

one

 

ofthe 免w
modelsthatexplicitlyaddresstheissueofsustainingchange(which wewillexplorein
chaPterll).However,ADK‐AR payslessattentiontothenatureandilrlplicationsofthe
widerorganizationalcontextandtheProcessofchange一触ctorsthatareemPhasizedin
other models.

Stouten’s Evidence‐Based Approach

Notingthatthe魚ilurerateofplannedorganizationalchangeishigh,Stoutenetal.(2018)
suggestthatmanagersshouldnotusetheavailableresearchevidence when ma]bLngdeci-
sionsaboutproposedchangesto organizationalpractices.Theyarguethatan evidence‐

basedapproachismoreapProPriate.Theirreview ofthatevidence,父)cusingonpractical

guidelinesandunderlyingtheory,identifies

 

l0stePsthatthechange managerisadvised
to賃)1loW:

1, Diagnosis(1):Gatherthe魚ctsconcerningthenatureoftheProblem.

2, Diagnosis(2):Assessthe

organization

’sreadiness あrchange.

3.ldenti尊solutions:lmplementevidencebasedchangeinterventions.

 

4. DeveloPe爺ectivechangeleadershipthroughouttheorganization.

5. Developandco]mmーunicateaco]mPellingchangev・s1on.

 

6・\yorkwithsocialnetworks,andusetheirinfluence,

 

7. UseenablingPractices一goalsetting,learning,employeeParticipation,andtransitional

 

structures-tosuPportimP1ementationthatshouldalsobe魚irandjust.
8.Encouragesmall‐scaleinitiativesandexPerimentation,toallowlocaladjustmentsto

   

broadchangeplans,

 

9. AssesschangeProgressandoutcomesovertime.

10.1nstitutionalizethechangetosustainitse”ヨectiveness.

  

Thisgeneraladvicehastobeadaptedtospecificlocalcircumstances,buttheresearch‐

ersarguethatanaPproachthat貸)1lowstheevidencecarefullyismorelikelytosucceed

than onethatdoesnot.ltisinterestingtonotethatthisapproachisbroadlyconsistent

withotherguidelines,suchas,危rexample,thosefrom Kotter(2012a):Establishtheneed

andreadinessForchange,communicateacompellingvls1on,assessProgress,institution‐

alizeorembedthechange.

Checkingthe Check1ists

Thereare

many

“howto”checklistsincirculation.Howshouldthechangemanagerchoose

betweenthem?Theircontentsaresimilar,buttheyeachhighlightdifierentissues.DICE

(Sirkinetal.,2005)asksthechange managertocalculatescores 危rthechangetiming,
team,commitment,and demandsonsta茸.ADKAR(Hiatt,2006)危cusesonindividual

32

 

CI1aPterlO

 

C′74′7ge脳α′70geme′7『H窃即ec輸’es

perceptions,motivations,andcapabilities.Stoutenetal,(2018)wantthechange manager

to貴)1loWtheresearchevidenceaCross

 

losteps,

  

oneresponseconcerns”云it“;someaPProachesaremoreapproPriatethanotherstoa

givencontext.Thisdependsonthesizeoftheorganization,thenature,scaleandurgency

ofchange,theproblemsto be

 

solved,numbers

 

a畳当ected,the

 

organization
’s historyof

change,andso on,lfchangetimingand demands

 

on sta甘 arekeyconcerns,andthe

organizationalculturehasapre舵rence貴)rquantifiedmethods,theDICE modelmaybe

appropriate,TheA”)KuRapproach mayapplyinsituationsWhereindividualconcerns

areseenascentraltothesuccessofchange,Theevidence‐basedapproachofStoutenetal,

(2018) maycontributetothecredibilityofthechange managerinorganizationalcultures

Wherechangesthemselveshavetobeseentobesupportedbyevidence,suchasengineer‐

ing,researchanddevelopment,andhealthcaresettings,

ltmayseem obvioustoarguethatchangesneed

to

 

be

 

adequately

 

resourced,

With

 

funds,people,
andotherappropriatesupport,iftheyareto

have

any

 

chance

 

of

 

success,Research

 

suggests

 

the

opposite,

 

Weidne「etal.(2017)wereinterestedinthesup-

portprovidedfororganizationalchanges,asinade-

quate 「esourcing

 

 

 

often

 

used

 

to

 

e×plain

 

や「

excuse}fai-ure.Confidenceinandcommitmentto

change,and

 

experimentation

 

with

 

different

 

op-

tions,canbeencouragedbyhavingaccesstothe

rightfinancial

 

and

 

hum

an

 

resources.Experience

shows,however,thatthesuccessofmajor

changes

isnotguaranteedevenwheresignificantresources

aremadeavailable,

  

Theresearchersstudiedlinksbetweenavailable

resourcesandthesuccessofchangeinthreehealth-

caresettingsintheUKNationa-HeaーthService(NHS),
These

 

involved

 

hospital

 

services,communitycare,
andmenta-healthservices.TheNHShadbeen

under

pressuretocutcosts,whilemaintainingquaーity,ata

time

 

when

 

demand

 

for

 

hea1thca「e

 

was

 

r-s1ng.
Changestothehospital

 

and

 

communityc

are

 

prac‐

ticeswe「efelttobestrate9icpriorities,sotheywe「e

wellresourced,andtheirchangeagentshada-otof

freedom,-ncontrast,mentalhealthse~iceswe「enot

seen

 

as

 

 

priority,and

 

budget

 

and

 

administrative

supportresourcesfortheseserviceswerecut.The

researchers

 

gathered

 

information

 

overfouryears,

usingacombinationofobservation,inte~iews,anda

widerangeoforganizationaldocuments,

 

W′hich

 

servicesexperiencedthe

 

mostprofound

changes,andwhy?Weidneretal.(2017)found:

 

Despitebeingverywe--resourced,hospitaーand

  

communitycareserviceswerelargelyunchanged

  

overtheperiodofthisstudy.

 

Mentalhealthserviceschangedandimprovedto

 

suchadegreethattheybecamealocalandna-

 

tionalshowpieceforstrategicchangeinitiatives.

 

Thoseworkingin mental

 

healthbenefittedfrom

 

thelackofinterestinwhattheyweredoing,as

  

thisa=owedthemtoimplementchangesquick-y,

 

without

 

becoming

 

involved

 

inlengthy

 

debates

  

andnegotiations.

  

Theinitiativesthatwereprioritizedand we-l

 

re‐

sourced

 

attractedtheattention

 

ofa wide

 

rangeof

powerful

 

stakeho1ders.As

 

 

result,thesechanges

came

 

under

 

more

 

intense

 

scrutinyand

 

challenge.
Changeagentshadtodevotemoretimetomanag-

ingtheneedsanddemandsofa‘ltheinterestedpar-

ties

 

and

 

spent

 

less

 

time

 

imp1ementing

 

theactual

changes.

  

Contraryto

 

mostchange

 

managementadvice,

this

 

evidence

 

suggeststhat,ifyou wanta

 

depart‐

ment,service,or

 

unitto

 

make

 

dramatic

 

changes,
considergivingitinadequateresourcestodoso.

                                                    

ChaPterlO

 

 

t乃の7geル仏α′7αge′77g川野ぞ裕Pedzves

 

327

               

Aぬ

other

 

answerto “how to

 

choose?” m‐aysimply be-doesit matter? As

 

long

 

as

             

adviceinthisfbrmisused asastructuredstarting point,thenthedetailsandissues

             

thatarerelevanttoaspecificchangeinaparticularorganizationshouldemerge

inthe

             

discussion andtheplanning.Afinalresponseis-whychoose? W′hynotworkthrough

             

more

 

than

 

one

 

ofthese

 

approaches

 

and

 

assess

 

their value

 

in

 

use?

 

Two

 

or

 

more

             

approachesappliedtothesamechangeprogram maysuggestsimilar-orwidelydiぼer-

             

ent-implications云orpractice,Thesimilaritiescanbereassuring.Thedifferencesmay

             

trigger

 

further

 

insights

 

and

 

investigation

 

and

 

contribute

 

to better

 

implementation

           

planning.

               

Thesemodelsare”high-level“guides,notdetailed“bestpractice
“road maps.Theyare

             

usefulaslong astheyareusedinthatway.Unlikearecipeinyourkitchen cookbook,

             

theseguidelineslisttheingredients withoutexplaininghowto makethedish.Youhave

             

toworkthatoutあryourself.Thiscanbe丑ustratingforchangemanagersseekingconcrete

             

adviceon“whatworksand whatdoesn’t,
”Checklistsjustidenti尊 態ctorsthatneedtobe

                   

addressed;thechallengeisto constructachangeimplementation processthatfitsthe

                 

organizationalconte×t.Thatisthehardpart. Changeflom thisperspectiveistosome

                   

extentatechnicalexercise,understandingtheissuestoconsider,butalsorequiresablend

             

oflocalblowledge,in恥rmedjudgment,andcreative”aロ.

rL万国副 Stage Mod

els

          

 

                                

 

                          
豹e″z/‘羽/e.占泥ryo′7e/oyes〃?叩か力7gあeg粥川′?≧gsα′?メカαP即ノ釧{霞“gsゴ”Sルs”左g′”/ddをs豹の
粥vo/ye 如rdwo戒, (Kanter,2009)

Changecanbeseen,notjustasachecklistofto‐dos,butasaseriesofstagesunあlding
overtime,fromillitiation,throughimplementation,to conclusion.Thisstage

approach

doesnotnecessarilydisquali尊thechecklistsandrecipes.However,stage modelssuggest

theactionsthatthechange managerisadvisedtotakewillvaryovertheimplementation

cycle.ThestepsnecessarytoinitiatechangethuswillbediHヨerentfrom thoserequired

duringtheinnーplementationstage,anddi航erentactionsagainwiubenecessarytoconclude

andsustainthechange.Stage modelscanthuscomplementthechecklistapproach

by

introducingthistemporaldin[lenslon.

Lewin’s Three‐Stage Model

oneofthebest‐known modelsofchange wasdevelopedby KurtLewin(1951),who

argued食)rtheneedtoz殉膨ezethecurrentstateofaffairs,to′“。vetoadesired

new

state,andthentor弓かeezeandstabilizethosechanges(Burnes,2020;Cummingset

al.,2016):

Changeattitudesbyma]bLngpeople発eluncom長)rtableaboutthe

way

thingsarebecausetheycouldbeimproved,andsoestablishthemotive

tochange・

328

 

ChaPterlO

 

C’7q′7ge崩敵′7αge′77g′7rHersPecr′yes

lmplementthechangeto mーovetothedesirednewstate.

EmbedorinstitutionaUzethenew behaviors,topreventPeoP1e登om
dri宣ingbacktopreviouswaysofdoingthings.

Eachofthesestages makesdiがerentdelmlandSonthechange manager.First,convincing

those who willbeinvolvedoftheneedtochange.Second,puttingthechangeinplace.

Third,redesigningroles,systems,andprocedurestodiscourageareturntopastpractice.
oneimportant。bservati。nofthism。delisthat,ifpeoplearehappywiththewaythings

are,theywillbereluctanttochange,Thechange manager
’sfirsttaskinthisapproach,

therejR)re,istomakepeopleunhappy,Butthisisa“
positivedissatis魚ction,

”whichencour-

agespeopletobelievethat“wecandobetter,

Findonybu方ube,
“Unfreezin9ChangeasthreestePs;RethinkingKurtl‐eWin’slegacyforchangemanagement”

(2019,7:36minutes).

 

Lewm’ssecondstage-mo光一caninvoke Kanter’slaW(seethebox”Kanter’sLaW),Which

sEwsthatchange。貴enlooksm(eafa江ureinthemiddle,Sc土田eiderandGoldwasser(1998),
whoP1otted

“theclassicchangecurve,
”capl旗redthislaw(seeFi罫jrelo.1).加themiddleof

thecurveSitsthe”vaneyofdespa立,
“Those whoarea爺ectedstarttorealizethatthiscould

meanlossandpa無 恥rthem.Scr血eiderandGoldwasser(1998,p,42)arg瓢lethatthisispr。ID

ablymevitable,butthatitisusellilt。beawareofthisandto weakentheiIPpactifpossible:

 

A1eaderofchangemustanticipateemployees’reactions,anotherkey魚ctorintheProcess,

 

Asshown[Figurelo.1],thesereactionsoccuralonga”changecurve,
“ThebluelinereP‐

 

resentswhatis,unあrtunately,typical,Unrealisticallyhighexpectationsattheoutsetofa

 

programmeleadtoarelativelydeep‘‘valleyofdespair”whenchangedoes口tcomeas

 

quicklyoreasilyasanticipated.overtime,employeesdoseea‘‘lightattheendofthe

 

tunnel”andthechangeeventuallyProducessomepositiveresults.Theredlineillustrates

 

whatispossiblewithe掻ectivechangemanagement:alesstraumaticvisittothevalleyand

 

greaterresultsastheprogrammereachescompletion.Canyouavoidthe”valleyofdespair”

 

altogether?Probablynot.AJ1changeprogrammesinvolvesomeloss,Thebestapproachis

  

toacknowledgethatelmーployeeswillmournthelossofbusinessasusual,muchas

people

  

experiencestagesofgrievingwhentraumainvadestheirpersonallives.

Kotter’s Eight‐Stage ModeI

Probablythemostwidelycited,andwidelyapp”ed,stagemodelofchangeistheone

developed

byiotlnKotter(2007;2012a),mentionedea川erinthischapter,Kotter’Smodelissummarized

mtablelo,5,ltiss。met鱈nespresentedasanothercheck旦St,butthisisatmsrepresentation.
rotehow hiseight‐stageapproachtotransit)rmationalchangeopenswith“createasenseof

urgencコメ(un仕eeze),passest虚。ugh
“empowerpeopletoact”(move),andendswith“institu-

ti。na比とenewapproaches
”(re丘eeze).Lew血’sechocanbeheardinthis model,too.

  

Kotteradvisesthechange managerto workthroughthoseeightstagesmoreorlessin

sequence.
rForush ort。 missout。n any。ftheStagesincreasesthechanceof魚ilure,

H[owever, Kotter alsorecognizesthatthiSis

 

an “ideal” perspective,aschangeis

 

o貴en

untidyanditerative.Aswiththechecklists,thismodelcodifiesthestagesofchange

ina

clearandeasilyunderstood manner,However,thechange managerstillhastocombine

ChaPterlO

 

C乃α′7ge脳毎′mgemβ′7「Per卸ec”1を.y

 

329

FIGUREIO.I
TheC1assicChangeCurve

High

    

〉麗

 

THECLAss1c cHANGECURVE Muchbetter

expectations

 

l謹灘 thanbefore

Realizationof

effortand

ComP1exity

Despalr

       

 

       

 

     

 

     

 

    

 

   

 

   

 

  

 

  

 

        

 

    

Lightatt

       

ofthet

圃圏麹 Typicalprogram

 

 

圏Effectiveprogram

Source:Schneider,D,~1りandGoldwasser,C,1998,

localknowledgewithcreativethin姫ngtotranslatethisadviceintoPracticalactionsthat

areappropriatetotheorganizationalcontextandtothenatureofthechangesthatare

beingProPosed.Therearemanyways,食)rexamP1e,inwhichto“createasenseofurgency

orto”commーunicatethevision”orto“institutionalizenewapProaches.
”Aswithchecklists,

these

 

stage

 

models

 

are

 

also “high

 

level” guides,ratherthan

 

detailed “best

 

Practice

丘ameworks.

 

APPelbaum etaL(2012)reviewed the evidence relating tothe e掻ectiveness

 

of

Kotter’s modeland あundsupPort あr mostoftheindividualstePs. However,despite

Kotter’sargumentaboutintegratingtheeightstages,nostudieshadevaluatedtheframe-

workasa whole,ontheotherhand,there wasnoevidencetochallengethePractical

valueoftheaPproach,whichremainsPOPular.Theauthorsarguethat“Kotter’schange

management modelaPPearsto

 

derive

its

 

POPularity more 登om its

 

directand usable

恥rmatthan 登om anyscientificconsensusontheresults”(Appelbaum etal.,2012,P.
764).Theyconclude,therefbre,that Kotter’s modelisuse鏡linchangeimplementation

P1anningbutshouldbecomP1ementedbyothertoolsto adaPtthe change processto

localconditions.

 

Kotter(2012b,p,52)subsequentlyrevisedhis丘amework,arguingthatthecomPonents

identifiedintablelo,5shouldbeseenas”changeaccelerators“tospeedupchange,The
new argumenthasthreeaspects.First, Kotterarguesthattheaccelerators mustoPerate

concurrently,ratherthaninsequence.Second,change mustnotrelyonasmallpowerful

330

 

ChaPterlO

 

 

t770′7ge脳超′mgの77e/7′Re窟¥)ecr′yes

TABLEIO.5 stage

                   

VVhatls1nvolved
Kotter’s霊ight‐

                             

ExaminemarketandcompetitiVerealities.Stagewl。del。f

   

l.E繁Qb′′shosenseofurgenCy.

   

,dentifyanddiscusscr-sesandopportunities.TransformーationaI

Change

        

2,Form oPOWer打u/9u′d′n9

       

Assemb-eagrouPWithPoWertoleadthechange,

               

coo〃”on.

                 

Encouradethisclrouptoworktodetherasateam.

                         

thinking.

           

6.P/onfiorqndcreore

          

Pianforvisibleperformance1mprovements.

            

shorr‐te““ w′ns.

            

RewardemP1oyeesinvolvedinimProvements,

                                  

ChaPterlO

 

C力α′?ge羽q′7αge“7e′”βe′1Ped′1ぞs

 

331

that question has been anSWered,the changecan pr○ceedt○the nextStage.Thefive
Stagesare:

     

Assess

Arc胡red

   

       

球′heredowewanttogo?

Howreadyare wetog。there?

W〆hatmustwed。togetthere?

Howdowemanagethejourney?

Howdowecontinuetoimprove?

  

Thismodelo爺ersguidelines長)rmanagingboththehardPerlt)rmanceandsofthealth
isSues.Thefiveguidelines云or managingperlbrmanceare:

1.Szm肥厚co勿ecz/yes鰹叩かe」,CreateacomPellinglongterm changevlslon,Setmidterm

  

asPirationsalongthepath,andguardagainstbiasesintheProcess.

2.S顔/ムsezre秘密e′“ems 魚ssessノ.Forecastdemand 危rs顔1IS,andunderstandtheirSuPP1y

  

dynamics;thendecidehowtoclosegaPS.

3.βα〃卿鰯eP厄〃 〃効力ecリ.DefinethePort危lioofinitiativesthatwillrealizeyourstra‐

 

tegic o廟ectives,and meetyourskillrequirements;then sequence youractions and

  

reallocateresourcesaccordingly.

4. のり“er嘘字 mode/@cリ.EstabliShstronggovernance,decidehowtoscaleyourchange

 

initiatives, monitor

 

their

 

Progress, and

 

dynamically

 

adjust

 

them

 

throughout

  

implementation.

5.乙e鯖′?!〃g″折口szr肥れぽerodyの7ceノ.lnstitutionalizeProcessesand exPertiseS0thatthe

 

organizationshareSknowledge,constantlyimproves,andcontinuallylearnshowtod。

 

newthings(KellerandSchaninger,2019a,P.8).

The行veguidelinesあrmanaginghealthare:

1. 嵐eの物gm応 超功能ノ.0醇ectivelycheckyourorganization’Shealth,choosewheretobe

 

exceptional,andtargetareaSthatneedimmediateimprovement.

2.MZ〃ぬezsね諺s 彰ssessノ.PinPointhelpingand hinderingbehaviors 危r Priorityhealth

 

areaS,e×P1oretheunderlying mindsetdrivers,and prioritizeacritical 免w “丘om-to”

 

mindsetshi賃s.
3.加卵“e〃ce/eyeな にたた!『ecリ.Use危urleverstoreshapetheworkenvir。nment:role mod‐

 

embog,understandmgandconviction,rein危rcementmechamsms,andcon6‐dence-build血g

 

e甜orts.ThenensurethatPerformanceinitiativesareengineeredtopromotetheneces-

 

sary mindsetandbehavioralshi仕s.
4. Ge〃eだのZo〃 げe〃e′割ノ@cリ.Mobilizeinfluenceleaders, makethechangepersonal危r

 

emP1oyees,and maintain high‐impact,two‐waycommunication.

5.乙eqde都月彰 〆αceme′”‘”dyの7ceノ.Prioritizeongoingrolesbytheirpotentialto create

 

value, matchthe mostinnPortant。nest。thebesttalent,and makethetalent‐match

 

Processbusinessasusual(KellerandSchaninger,2019a,P,8).

 

EvenifthishighlydetailedprescriPtioniS危1lowedcare鏡1ly,trans危rmation canstill
disaPPoint.AccordingtoN[CKinseyresearch,adoPtinga”

Pipeline
”analogy,Problemso賃en

ariSethrough
“leakage,

”whichmayexP1ainthe70PercentfailurerateofP1annedchange:

332

 

ChaPterlO

 

C乃α′7ge脳”′?αg1e′77g′7rReri¥)ecr′}’郷

                

lt’sallaboutavoidingleakage.SoattheasPirationstage,長)lksdon’tgo長)rtheir和1IPoten-

               

tial.Theygo化)rsevenoutoftenofit.AねdthenintheP1anningandexecution,theylet

               

somethingss1ide,Theydon’tseesomethingsallthewaythrough.Aねdtheydosevenout

                

oftenofit.Then,finally,theydon’tbuildinthechangesthatarenecessary貴)rtheinitia-

               

tivetobesustained.Theygetitsevenoutoftenright,\Mell,ifyou multiplythattogether,

              

thosesevensoutoftens,youquicl紅ygettoabouta30Percentsuccessrate.That’s

what

               

we’veseen,agamandagain.Youhaveto,ateachstepoftheprocess,goforthe

 

looper‐

                

centandbeabletorealizethefulIPotentialofthebusinessinorder化)rthetransit)rmation

          

tobesuccess位1,(Bucyetal,2o17a,p.3)

         

Bucyetal.(2017b)oぼerthree Piecesofadvice 危rkeepingthePipelineintactand

           

transft)rlnationalchangeontarget,First,berg/e刀″ess,assumingthat mostinitiativesWill

             

deliverlessthantheypromiseatthestart.Aぬdensurethattimeisallocatedtosmaller

             

initiatives,Torein貴)rcethispoint,theyuseaninteresting
“boulders,pebbles,andsand”

         

analogy.
“Boulders”areinitiativesthatareeachexpectedtocontributeatleast5percent

         

ofthe

 

program’s

 

total

 

value,
“Pebbles” are

 

expected

 

to

 

contribute

 

between

 

o.5

 

and

         

5Percent,AJ1initiativesexpectedto contributelessthano.5percentofthetotalvalue

         

are“sand.
”N[CKinseyresearchsuggeststhat50percentofthetotalvalueofmanytrans‐

         

あrmationprogramstypicallycomes丘omsand.FocusingefGortontheboulders-thelarge,

         

high‐profileinitiatives-isthere危rerisky.lnaddition,itisusuallyquickerand easierto

         

implementthe”sand,
” which mayinvolve 元werlayersofapprovalandlesscumbersome

         

coordination.

                 

second,たα/sresoz/rce品 anddonotexpectyourbestchange managerstorun more

         

thanthreeinitiativesatthesametime,APdcontrolthenumberofmetricsand milestones,

         

manyofwhichareneverusedandbecomeunnecessaryburdens,Third,〃/の7の?ααdqpr;

              

expectsomepr(ガectstobedelayed,and managethiswith week1yactionsforinitiative

             

ovvners,

AppraisingtheStage Models

Stagemodelscomplementthechecklistapproachbyhighlightingthewayinwhichchange

un云oldsovertime.ThisleadstotheM【cKinseyobservationthatchanges 態ilto deliver

theirpromises

 

dueto “leakageinthepipeline

 

as

 

changeun危lds.As we have noted,

changeislikelyto makedi都erentdemandsonthechange manager-and onthose who

areafiectedbychange-ateach ofthediぼerentstages.AJthough changeisrarelytidy,
kllowingtheprobable

 

sequence

 

ofevents,and how that maybe

 

disrupted,allowsthe

change managertoanticipateandprepare 危rpotentialdi賃iculties,

 

Stage modelsareopentothreecriticisms.First,despitetheemphasisoneventsunfold-

ingovertime,these modelsrarelyre免rto whathasgonebeおrethecurrentintervention,

W′hathashappenedinthepast,however,withregardto previouschangeattempts,will

influence

responses

tocurrentproposals,Consider,危rexample,thechange management

actionsthatmayberequiredto“createasenseofurgency
”in an organizationthat

has

seen manypreviousunsuccessfulchangesthatseniormanagementdrovewith”asenseof

urgency
”and wheretopteamcredibilityisnowlow.Contrastthiswiththeorganization

wheretheopportunityorthreatiscleartoallstaぜ members,who,onthebasisofrecent

experienceofchange,placeahighdegreeoftrustinthetopteam,ltmaythuso賃enbe

help鏡ltoextendthetimelinebackwardandtoidenti勾(andifnecessary,tocompensate

fbr)previouseventsandoutcomesthat m卸influencetoday
’saction plans,

                                  

Chapterl〇

 

C力α′7ge凡毎′?αge′??e′汀ReなPecr′ves

 

333

  

Second,itローayalsobeheIPfulto e×tendthetimeline化)rward,beyond”consolidate”

and

 

”institutionalize.
” Even

 

changes

 

that

 

are

 

successful will

 

eventually decay without

aPProPriateぱlaintenance.Parado樽ically,successfulchangescanalsoinhibittheilnーP1emen-

tationoffurtherinnovation,which maybeseenasnovel,risky,andathreattocurrently

eぼective operations.Theissuesthatarisein managingthesustainability ofChangeare

exploredinchapterll.

  

Finally,as withchange

 

checklists,stage modeIS

 

Oぼerfurther“highlevel“guidance,
leavingthechange managertodeterminehowinpracticetoapplythatadviceinagiven

context.Thereisnoclear,unambiguousstatementof“thisiswhattodo.
”Thecontingency

approachestochange managementexploredinthenextsection,however,seektoadvise

thechange managerhowtoadjustimplementationstrategiese稀ectiveiytodi節erentcon‐

textsandconditions.

瞳圃圏圃翻The Process Perspective

Change

 

is

 

 

process,and

 

not

 

an

 

event, This

 

is

 

 

straight危rward

 

observation

 

andis
reflectedinthestage modelsofchange managementdiscussedintheprevioussection.
Processperspectives,however,highlightothersigni賃cantaspectsoforganizationalchange

and drawtheattentionofthechange managertoissuesnotcoveredbyeitherchecklists
orstage models.Aユthoughpotentially makingchangeappeartobe morecomplex,process

thinkingencouragesthe

 

change managerto

 

adopta morecomprehensive approachto
designing,planning,implementing,andreviewingchangeactivities,

 

oneofthearchitectsoftheprocessualperspective, 山Ddrew Pettigrew(1985;1987),
cautionedagainstlookingfbrsinglecausesandsimpleexplanationsあrchange.lnstead,
hepointedtothemanyrelated 態ctors-individual,group,organizational,social,politica1一

thatcanaがectthenatureand outcomesofchange.Pettigrew observedthatchange was

acomplexand”untidycocktail”thatincludedrationaldecisions, mixed withcompeting
individualperceptions,o貸enstimulatedbyvisionaryleadership,andspicedwith“

power

plays
“torecruitsupportandtobuildcoalitionsbehindparticularideas.

 

lnthisview,theunitofanalysisisnot“thechange
“:anew organizationstructure,or

newtechnoloIW,ornew workingpractices.Theumtofanalysisis“theprocessofchangein
context“:howanewstructurew皿be血lplementedanddevelopedinthisparticularorgam-

zationalsetting.This

 

subtle

 

shi宣in perspectivehastworelatedimplications.First,this
meanspayingattentiontothe”ow ofeventsandnotthinkゴロロgofchangeaseitherstaticor

neatlyt山ie‐boundedwithde行nedbeg山ningandendPoints.Second,t垣salso meanspay血g
attentiontothewidercontextinwhichchangeistakingplaceandnotthinkingintermsof

aparticularlocationintimeandgeography(thisnewmachineinthis魚ctorybay).lnshort,
processperspectivesarguethat,tounderstandorganizationalchange,onehasto

understand

howthesubstance,context,andprocessinteractovert無letoproducetheoutcomes.

 

Patrick DawsonandConstantine山odriopoulos(2017)hを奴e範rtherdevelopedthispro‐

cessualperspective.They makeitclearthattounderstandchangeweneedtoconsiderthe
fbllowingissues:

1.Thecomexz-past,present,andfuture-in whichtheorganizationfunctions,

including

 

externalandinternal魚ctors,andtheorganization
’shistoryaspasteventsshapecurrent

 

responses

334

 

chapterlO

 

C力α′7ge肋名α′mge〃7e′7rRe′1Ped′1ぞs

           

2.Theszのsrm7ceofthechangeanditsscaleandscoPe,Whichcouldbenewtechnology,

              

processredesign,anew paymentsystem,orchangestostructureand

culture

            

3.Ther〆α′7s/rZO′?〃rocess,includingtasks,activities,decisions,timing,andsequencing

            

4,Fがなにα

 

activity, Within

 

and

 

outside

 

the

 

organiZation,shaping decisions,securlng

          

support

           

5. TheZ′?Zero”!○′7sbetweenthese 魚ctors,WhichshaPeboththechangeprocessandthe

            

outco]比les

            

This perspectiveincorporatestherole

 

ofpowerand politicsinshaping organizational

            

change,This

 

is

 

a 篤aturethatthe perspectiVes we have

 

examinedso 魚reitherdonot

            

mention ordealwithonlybrieny,Asorganizationsarepoliticalsystems,andaschange

           

isinevitablyapoliticizedprocess,theprocessperspectivearguesthatthechange manager

         

mustbewillingtointerveneinthepoliticsoftheorganization.lnthisrespect,thekey

         

taskistolegitimizechangeproposalsinthe錠ceofcompetingideas,Themanagementof

         

changecanthusbedescribedas“the managementofmeaning,
“ whichinvolvessymbolic

         

attemptstoestablishthecredib道tyofparticulardefinitionsofproblemsandsolutions

         

andtogainconsentandcompliance丘om otherorganization members,Partofthistask,

         

thereあre,istodoWith“the wayyoutellit,
“or moreaccurately With“the wayyouse//

         

irtoothers,

         

Dawson and Aiodriopoulos(2017)identi~ eightlessonsfrom a process perspective

        

concerningchange managementpractice:

         

1. There

 

are

 

no

 

universal

 

prescriptions

 

or

 

simple

 

recipes

 

For

 

how best

 

to

manage

         

change,

         

2. Changeisapoliticalprocess,andchangeleadersneedtobepoliticallysensitiveand

            

astute.

         

3. Time,planning,andflexibilityareessentialinchangingattitudesandbehaviorsandin

          

galn・ngcommitmentForchange.

         

4.Theyadvocate“criticalreflection,
”challengingtaken-免r‐grantedassumptions;あrexam-

          

ple,withregardtoresistance,which maybedesi1ableifitsubvertsa weakinitiative.

         

5.ltisimportanttolearnfrombothpositiveandnegativeexperlences.

         

6, Education, training, and

 

development

 

should

 

be

 

aligned

 

With

 

new operating

         

Procedures.

         

7. Communication

 

is

 

fundamentally

 

important

 

in

 

steering

 

processes

 

in desired

          

directions,

         

8,
“Contradictionsprovidehealthあodあrcriticalreflection.

” Changerequiresconstant

          

adaptationtocontextualcircumstances,

          

M[ostofthisadviceechoestheguidance丘omchecklistsandstage models,However,

         

Wherethechecklistssay
”dothis,


processaccountsadvise,

“beawareofthis,
“notingthat

         

there are no “bestpractice
”recipesForchange.The process perspectivedi窟ersinthe

           

emphasis placed

 

ontherole

 

ofpower and politics

 

in

 

shaping

 

change outcomes, one

            

implicationofthisemphasisisthatthechange managermustbepoliticallyskilledandbe

            

wilロngandabletousethoseskills.Thecapabilitiesofthechange managerareexplored

        

inchapter12.

ChaPterlO

 

C方α′7ge崩毎′?αge〃7g′7ZReri¥)ecm’es

 

335

Processtheoryarguesthattheoutcomesofchange

areproduced

 

bytheinteractionsofseveralfac

tors

overtimeinagivencontext.VVhatdoesthislooklike

inpractice?DondeP1owmanandcolleagues(2007)

giveafascinatingaccountofwhattheyca=“radicaー

changeaccidenta=y′’Theystudiedtheturnaround

ofルグ′ss′on cわurch,afailing

 

or9anization

 

ina

 

large

southwesternU.S.city,

  

The

 

organizational

 

context

 

was

 

unstable.The

church Wasfaced with

 

 

potentia1lyterminal

 

prob-

lem.Seenasatraditional”silkstockings”church,the

organization

 

was

 

asset

 

rich

 

but

 

cash

 

poor.Atten-

danceandmembershipWeredeclining.There

were

ongoingconflictsinvolvingaKKKplaque,theplay-

ingofiazzinthechurch,andwhethergaysandles‐

biansshouldbeacceptedasmembers.Thepurpose

andidentityofthechurchcreatedfurthertensions,
particuーarly with

 

regardto

 

includingthe

 

homeーess

andotherswhoWereexcーuded.Withseveralprevi-

ouschangesinleadership,therehadbeentwopas-

tors

 

in

 

three

 

years,resulting

 

in

 

the

 

controversiaー

appointmentoftwoco‐pastors.

 

Howdidchangebegin?A9roupofyoungsters,
whodid

 

not1ikethetraditional

 

church

 

school

 

pro-

gram,hadthe

 

idea

 

ofprovidinghotbreakfastsfor

homeless

 

people

 

on

 

Sunday

 

mornings.Some

 

of

thoseyoungsterswere

 

noteven

 

church

 

members;

theyWeresoonservin9

 

500peopleeverySunday.
Thehotbreakfastsideawasneverintendedtopro-

duce

 

radical

 

change.However,P1owman

 

and

 

col-

leaguesarguethatsmaーーactionssuchasthiswere
”amplified“bytheunstab-econtext.

  

VVhatweretheoutcomes?Church

 

membership

recovered,invoーvin9aWiderrangeofthelocalpop‐

u-ation

 

including

 

the

 

homeless

 

and

 

minorities.
Homelessindividualsjoinedthechurch,sanginthe

choir,and

 

served

 

as

 

ushers.The

 

style

 

ofworship,
formalityofdress,andmusicchangedasdidthepro-

fileofthecongregation;thiswas

 

nolongera“silk

stockings”church.The

 

church

 

gotcityfundingto

provideadaycenterforseveralthousandhomeless

andwassoonservin9over20,00omealsayear.ln

additionto

 

breakfasts

 

and

 

clinics,the

 

church

 

pro-

videdーegalassistance,jobtraining,laundryservices,
andshowerfacilities.Thechurchmottochangedto

include“justiceintoactionP

  

VVhydidthishappen?The“contextualconfigura‐

tion”thatencouragedongoingchangeincluded:

 

Dissatisfied youngsters

 

came

 

up

 

With

 

the

 

hot

  

breakfastsidea.

 

Adoctorworkingasavolunteerofferedtotreat

  

medical

 

problems

 

instead

 

and soon

 

recruited

  

others,leadingtofull‐scale medical,dental,and

  

eyeclinicsaspartoftheSundayactivity.

 

ThechurchremovedtheKKKplaque-a major

 

symbolicact,

 

Leadersactedas“sense‐9lvers,
“providingmean-

  

ingratherthandirectingchanges,andchosethe

  

languagelabe1s:”purgin9P”recovering,
””reach-

  

ingouttothemarginaーized.

 

Affluent

 

members

 

left

 

as

 

the church

 

focused

  

increasinglyonthehomeless,andnew(lessafflu-

  

ent)memberswereattractedbythemessageof

 

inclusivity.

Thefeatures

 

oftheorganizationafcontextencour-

agedaseriesofsmallchangestoemergeandampli-

fiedtheseintoanunplanned,radicaー,andsuccessful

change

 

process,There was

 

notop‐downtransfor-

mation

 

designed

 

byseniorーeaders.Thisisa

 

good

exampleofaprocessualaccountofchangeunfo-d-

ingovertime,illustratinghowfactorsatdifferent1ev-

els

 

ofanaーysis

 

interactto

 

produce

 

the

 

outcomes,
P1owmanetaー,(2007)offerthefollowingadvicefor

thechange manager.First,besensitivetocontext,
Second,be

 

prepared

 

to

 

be

 

surprised;the

 

emer-

genceofsmall

 

changes

 

isnotan

 

orderlyprocess.
Third,viewthosesmaHchangesopportunistically,in

termsofhowtheymightbedeveloped.

Theprocessperspectiveonchangethusappearstohavethreestrengths;

1.ltrecognizesthecompleXityofchange,draw血gattentiontothe立lteractionbetween many

 

魚ctorsatdiflコerentlevels,shapmgthenature,d立ection,andconsequencesofchange.

336

 

ChaPterlO

 

C/?”′7ge崩‘”′mge′77g′7『Re′~梯形cm’es

             

2.ltrecognizeschangeasaprocesswithapast,apresent,andafuture,ratherthanas

               

astaticortilne‐boundedeventordiscreteseriesofevents,

             

3.lthighlightsthepoliticalnatureoforganizationsandchange,e・鮒LPhasizingtheimpor-

              

tanceofpoliticalskilltothechange manager.

However,theprocessperspectivehasthreelimitations:

1,ChangeinthisperspectiVeisindangerofbeingpresentedasoverco理ーp1ex and over-

 

whehDoinglyconfusing,andthusasunmanageable.

2,Thosewhoareinvo1vedinthechangeprocessaresometimesportrayedas minorchar-

 

actersmthebroadsweepofevents,relegatedtotheroleofsense-giversandinterpreters

 

controlled

 

by

 

social

 

and

 

contextual

 

化)rces,rather

 

than

 

as

 

proactive
“movers

 

and

 

shakers,

3,ltdoesnotlenditselfreadilytotheidentificationofspecificguide且nes,云ocusingon

 

awarenessratherthan prescription. Adviceisthuslimitedtothoseissuesto which

  

change managementshouldbesensitive:compleXity,process,context,politicalinflu‐

  

ences,opportunity.

霞園瞳園 ContingenCy APProaches

Dawsonand 山ロdriopoulos(2017)arenotaloneinnotingthattherearenouniversal“one

bestway

prescriptions食)rmanagingchange,ThishasledtothedeveloPmentofcontin-

gency approaches, which

 

arguethatthe

 

best wayto

 

manage

 

change depends

 

onthe

context.Vi/ewillexplore節urcontingencyapproaches:“〃?eだ め 肺α“?,豹e 豹の?ge尼ααのも

sため 助走sの′”/′7・〃〃′77,Z庇 Srqce‐D”′のたJノの〃『!′増のりノ〃7のr鳶,and 的eああpe息の刺んβ〆昭雄7
欲の増eたα/e緩osmのe.

VVhereto Start?

The

 

problem

 

has

 

been

 

diagnosed,and

 

appropriate

 

organizationalchanges

 

have been

agreed. Whatto do next? Wheretobegin? Hope Haileyand Balogun(2002,p,158)
discussthisbrieflyintheircontingency model(explainedbelow)arguing,

”Changecan

start丑om‐toP‐down,bottom-up,orsomecombinationofthetwo,orasanotheralternative,
bedevelopedfrom pocketsofgoodpractice.Shouldchangebeimplementedthroughout

theorganizationsimultaneously,orcanitbedeliveredgraduallythroughpilotsites?”The
change manager,

isthus魚cedwitharangeofoptions.

 

Adoptinga novelapproachtothe question ofwheretostart, N1arco

 

Gardinietal,

(2011)arguethatchangeshouldbeginwiththosestaぜ whosecontributionswillhavethe

mostsignificantimpactontheaspectsofper危rmancethatneedtochange,ldentiルing
those”

pivotalroles”isvital,butthisisnotalways obvious.Theyreachedthis“pivotal

roles”conclusion 官om

 

e×Perience with alarge European retailbank.Thisbank,with

6,00obranches,魚cedincreasingcompetition官om more“customer‐丑iendly
’localbanks.

To

 

deal

 

withthis

 

threat, management

 

developed

 

 

new

 

organizational model, which

reduced centralsupervls・on and controland gavebranch managers moreautonomyto

tailortheir marketing,promotions,ando節eringstothe立localareas.Thenew modelwas

                                  

ChaPterlO

 

C方の増e虚劣の70gの77emHer撃沈″1ぞs

 

337

communicatedquickly‐toallstaぼ,andthewayinwhichthenew roles would work was

explained.Top managementdidthisthroughroadshows, memos,intranetarticles,and

bypublishingthenew organizationcharts.Everyonereceivedthesameinあrmation,and

thechanges werealltohappenatthesametime.

 

Reviewingprogressa花w monthslater,however,moststa茸 membershadnotchanged

theirworkingpractices.ln particular,thebranch managers werestillusingtheprevious

structureandproceduresbecausethey werea丘aidofmakingmistakesorannoyingmore
seniorstaぜ.Theregionalsupervisorswere meanttoactascoachestothebranch manag-

ers,butmanydidnothavecoachingskills,and manybranch managersdidnothavethe

skillstoruntheirown branchesand maketheirown decisions.Realizingthatthey

had

triedtochangetoo muchatthesametime,top managementdecidedto あcusonthose

whocoulddeliverthechangethe 危stest,Theregionalmanagers,perhaps,orthe

branch

supervisors? Neitherofthosegroupsqualified;theyhadnoimpactondailybranchactiv-

ities,couldtherelbrenota爺ectresults,andhadlittlecredibilitywith丘ontlinesta茸.The

branch managersthemselveshadthegreatestinfluenceontheoutcomesoftheplanned

changesbecause:

・ Theirworkhaddirectandsignificantimpactontherevenuestream.

・ Theywereconnectedwithmanyothergroupsacrosstheorganization,

・ Theycoulddecidehow peoplegotthingsdone.

 

lnotherwords,thebranch managerscombinedmanagerialimpactwithlocalcontrol,
buttheylackedthe

 

skills

 

and

 

attitudesto

 

drive

 

changequickly.Theimplementation

P1an

 

was

 

redesigned, 免cusinginitially

 

onthe

 

6,00o

 

branch

 

managers. Thetraining

designedespeciallyfbrthem beganwiththeirroleinthenew organizationalmodeland

covered commercialskills,creditand asset managementcapabilities,qualityand cus-

tomer

 

satis鏡ction

 

principles,and

 

other

 

skills

 

such

 

as

 

managing people,communica-

tions,andconflictresolution.onlywhenthebranch managers wereready-six

months

later-didthebankstartto work with othersta菖 andsupervisors, with di爺erentpro-

grams

 

designed 危rdifferentroles,Thistimetheresults were much better. Eighteen

monthslater:

・ Thenumberofproductssoldperbranchhadrisenby15percent.

・ Thetimespentmakゴヒロgcreditdecisionshad翫1lenby25percent.

・ Branchrelationship managerswerespending30percentmoretimewithcustomersdue

 

tothestreamlinedprocess.

・ Customerresponsesto marketingcampaignsdoubled,withanationalsurveyshowing

 

a20percentimprovementincustomersatis魚ction,

・ Knowledgesharingand mutualsupportincreased,andthebankbecamemorereceptive

 

toideas丘omfront亘nestaぜ.

 

Gardinietal.(2011)concludethatchangeismorelikelytobesuccess前lifimple

mentationhastwokeycomponents.First,startwiththe‘‘
pivotalpeople,

”whosework

isclosesttotheactivitiesthatneedtobeimproved.Second,designacomprehensive

program

 

with

 

clear

 

and

 

meaningful

 

goals,linking

 

those

 

in

 

pivotalroles

 

with

 

the

338

 

ChaPte「1O

 

C乃α′7ge崩必m7αge′77の7rRe郡切に〃1ぞs

           

changesthatthe

 

rest

 

ofthe

 

organization

 

hasto

 

α1ake. This

 

question

 

of“whereto

           

start isnotaddressedexplicitlybythechecklists,stagemodels,orprocessapproaches.

           

This,ofcourse,isnottheonlyContingencya]ぼectingtheappropriate mLodeofchange

            

ilnLple]α1entation,

        

The ChangeLeadershipstyles continuum

           

oneofthe oldestcontingencyapproachesaddressesthe question ofchange manage-

         

茸lentstyle,whichcanrange overacontinuum 丑om autocraticto delnocratic,or,as

          

Tannenbaum and schmidt(1958)describedthis,from leadeトoriented to 貴)1loweト

          

orientedleadership(seeFigurelo.2).Thecultures-or,atleast,the managementtext‐

            

books-of developed

 

western

 

economies

 

have

 

endorsed

 

participative approaches

 

to

          

change management,食)rwhichevidencehaslongestablishedthebenefits(e.g.,Coch

          

andFrench,1948).Thosewhoareinvolvedinthedesignandimplementationofchange

        

are

 

more

 

likelyto

 

contribute

 

to

 

its

 

success

 

than those

 

on whom change

 

has

 

been

        

imposed,However,thechange managershouldbeawareoftherangeofoptionsavail‐

       

ablewithregardtostyleandofthedisadvantagesandadvantagesofthese(seetablelo.6),

        

Forexample,
“telling


people withoutparticipationisquickanddecisive,butitmay

        

causeresentmentand doesnotcapturestaffideas. ontheotherhand,
”invitingpar‐

        

ticipation”increasescommitmentandaccesstousefulinformation,butitistimecon‐

        

sumingandinvolvesalossofmanagementcontrol,lnacrisiswherearapidresponse

        

isrequired,
“inviting participation

” can bedamaging,ln an organizationthatvalues

        

theknowledgeandCommitmentofits

 

sta賃,theresentmentcausedby“telling”sta賃

        

aboutplannedchangescanalsobedamaging,Choiceofchange managementstylethus

        

needstoreflectthecontext,

The stace‐Dunphy contingency Matrix

Participativeapproachestochange managementhavealsobeenchallengedbythework

oftwoAustralianresearchers,DougStaceand DexterDunphy(Staceand Dunphy,2001),
TheirapproaChbeginsbyestablishingascaleofchange,丘om “finetuning

”to“corporate

trans危rmation“(seetablelo,7andFigurel.1,
‘Assessing DepthofChange,

“inchapterl).
Theythenidentiル 危urstylesofchange(seetablelo,8),

FIGUREIO.2
Tallnenbaum-SchmidtLeadershipContinuum

Leadermakesdecisionsthatareopentoreview

ChaPte「1O

 

C乃研7ge粥‘”′mgの’7emβのPeczか弧

 

339

  

 
 

 

 

      

  
 

   

 

 

 
 

 

 

  

 

 

 

  

 

  

  
 

 

 

 

 
 
 

 

 

 

  

  

 

 

 

 

   
 

  
 
 

    

 

 
 

    

 

   

 

 

     

    

 
 
 
 

 

 

  

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

  

 

   


   

   

  

 

 

 
   
  

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

  

   

 

  

 

 



 

 

 

 
 
 

 

 

 

 
 
 

  

   

 

  

 
 

  
 

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

  

  

 

 

 
 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
 

 

 

 

 
ug

  

rtments

tion,bette

enthighe

eddecisio

nformati

erdecisi

340

 

ChaPterlO

 

C77の7ge崩‘”′?qge′77gm目標功ecr′yes

             

P1ottingscaleofchange againststyleofchangeproducesthe mlatriXinFigure

 

lo,3.

            

Thisidentifies ourstrategies:ParticiPativeevolution,charismatictransFormation,貴)rced

            

evolution,and dictatoria.transft)rlnation.Figure

 

lo,3alsoadvocatestheuseofdiがerent

          

change managementstylesdependingontheattributesofthecontext.Staceand Dunphy

              

(2001)thusarguethatparticipativestrategiesareti・neconsumingastheyexposeconflict-

            

ingviewsthataredifficulttoreconcile,▽vhereorganizationa.survivaldependsonrapid

              

andstrategicchange,dictatorialtransfbrmationisappropriate.StaceandDunphy(2001,

              

p,185)citetheexampleofapolicechiefappointedtostamp outcorruption and mod‐

           

ernizeapolicedepartmentwho,inhisown words,initiallyadopteda managementstyle

            

thatwas“6‐rm,hardandautocratic,andithadtobethatbecausethatiswhattheorga-

            

nizationunderstood,

             

onceagain,wehaveacontingencyperspectivethatarguesthat,whiiecollaborative-

           

consultativemーodeswillworkwellundersomeconditions,therearecircumstanceswhere

           

directive-coercive modesofchange managementarelikelytobemoreappropriate and

         

e爺ective,lnparticular,where majorchangesarenecessaryfbrsurvival,timeisshort,and

           

thoseaぼectedcannotagreeonthechanges,then dictatoria.trans.brmation maybethe

            

necessarychoiceofstyle.lnvitingparticipation underthoseconditions wouldtaketime

            

andbeunlikelytoproduceanyagreement,

FIGUREIO.3
Thestace-DunpllyContingencyApproachtoChangelmplementation

ーncrementalchange

  

strategies

Transformativechange

   

strategies

Port′c′Pot~eevo/Ur′on chor′smor′crrons危rmor′on

 

Collaborative一
Consultative

modes

Usewhentheorganization

needsminoradUustmentto

  

meetenvironmental

 

conditions,wheretimeis

 

available,andwherekey
interestgroupsfavorchange

Usewhentheorganizationneeds

  

majoradjustmentstomeet

environmentalconditions,where

    

thereislittletimefor

participation,andwherethereis

  

supportforradica-change

Forcedevo/〃”on D′Crotor′oだro“s行ormo士′o打

Directive-coerC1ve

   

modes

Usewhenminoradjustments

 

arerequired,wheretimeis

  

available,butwherekey
interestgroupsopposechange

Usewhenmajoradjustmentsare

necessary,wherethereisnotime
forparticipation,wherethereis

nointernaーsupportforstrategic

   

change,butwherethisis

    

necessaryforsurvival

sco/eofchonge:

Sty/eofchonge:

Source:StaceandDunphy(2001).

ChaPterlO

 

C/zの増e叱函′mgememβセメー字だけかes

 

341

The Hope Hailey‐Balogun Change Kaleidoscope

Veronica Hope HaileyandJuliaBalogun(2002;Balogunetal.,2016)alsoadvocate a

conte×t‐sensitiveaPProachtothedesignandimplementationofchange,Their丘amework

identifiesthecharacteristicsoftheorganizationalcontextthatshouldbetakenintocon‐

sideration when makingchangeimP1ementationdesignchoices.Theydescribethisframe-

workas“TheChange Kaleidoscope,
”shownin Figurelo.4(HopeHaileyand Balogun,

2002,p,156),

FIGUREIO.4
TheChangeKaleidoscope

  

Theargumentthatchangeimーp1ementationshou1dref1ecttheorganiZationa1contextis
notanovelone,butH[opeHaileyandBalogunarguethatothercontingency models化)cus
ontoo narrow arange of魚ctorssuch astypeofchange,time 丘alエーe,thePowerofthe

change manager,andthedegreeoforganizationalsuPport食)rchange.Theeightcontext

魚ctorsinthechangekaleidoscoPeare:

万′7だ

Scope

Presery傭わ〃

Dれ形な!ぴ

Reαの〃ess

     

DePend立1gonurgency,whatisthenecessaryspeedofthe

change?

Hownarrow orbroadisthescoPeofthechangeagenda?

lsthereaneedto maintainadegreeofcontinuityonsomedimen‐

sions,insomeareas?

ALretheattitudesandvaluesofthosealmectedsimilarorarethere

diversesubcultures?

Dotheindividualsinvolvedhavethenecessaryskillsandknowledge?

Doestheorganization havetheresourcestoilローP1el・lent more

change?

▽vhatdegreeofaccePtanceoforresistancetochangeisthere?

▽Vhatisthepowerofthechange managerrelativetoother

stakeholders?

      

Contextfactors;

  

enablersandconstraints

           

lmplementationoptions

Timin9

Scope

Needforcontinuity

Diversityofattitudes

Capabilityofthoseinvolved

Capacityoftheor9anization

Readinessforchange

powerofthechangemana9er

      

VVhattypeofchangeisrequired?

       

VVhereshouldwestart?

   

VVhatimplementationstyleWi=Weuse?

     

VVhattar9etsareweaimingfor?

VVhatinterventionstrategieswillbeappropriate?

VVhatchangeimplementationrolesareneeded?

342

 

ChaPterlO

 

Cメ7の増ど脳〆”′mge′77gmReなPeα和郎

         

Theseeightcontext錠ctorscanbeeitherconstraints(e,g,,shortageoftime,low caPル

       

bility)orenablers(e,gりbroadagreementonneedforchange,power鏡lchange manager).

            

Thepointisthatthedesignofthechangeimplementationprocessshouldbeinfluenced

       

bythenatureofthosecontext鏡ctors.Hope Haileyand‐Balogun(2002,p.161)identiル

         

thesiXdesign optionssumαーarizedmtablelo,9,

TABLEIO.9
ChangeKaleidoscoPel1mP1e1mlenta錠on0Ptions

Designoptions

    

Meaning

方MPe

           

ThesCOPeandsPeedofthePrOPosedchange

 

万αrger

          

FocusonChangingoutputs,behaviors,attitudes,andvalues

′〃fervent′ons

      

Leversand mechanisms:technical,political,cultural,education,communication

              

andinFormedjudgmentarekeytochoosingthecontextuallyappropriatechangedesign

       

丘omthe widerangeofoPtionsavailable,aS HOPe Haileyand Balogun(2002,P.163)

        

explain:

Understandingthecontextualconstraintsandenablersiskeytounderstandingthetypeof

changeanorganizationisabletoundertakeasopposedtothetypeofchangeitneedsto

undertake,andthere長)rewhatsortofchangepathisrequifed.Sinロー旦arly,understandingthe

contextualconstraintsandenablersiscentralto mal圏LngchoicesaboutstartPointandstyle,
h産oreparticipativechangeaPproachesrequiregreaterskillsin態cilitation,agreaterreadi-

ness化)rchange丘omthoseparticipating,moretime,andthereIR)re,o貸en,morefunds.
Choicesaboutthechangetargetandinterventionsmayobviouslybea爺ectedbythescope

ofchange,butalsoby,丘)rexample,capacity.N1anagementdeveloPmentinterventionscan

beexpensiveandmーaynotbeaccessibletoorganizationswith1imitedfunds,lnrea1ity

choosingtherightoptionsisaboutasldingtherightquestionsandexercisillgchange

judgement.

  

Theargumentthat”thebestapproach
”dependsoncontextisanappealingone,Con‐

tingencyapproaches,however,arenotbeyondcriticism.First,theideaof“fitting
”change

implementationtoaparticulartypeofchangeinagivencontextmaybeeasiertoexplain

                                                     

ChaPterlO

 

C方の7ge崩‘”′mgの’?emReなPecrか郡

 

343

                 

intheorythantoputintopractice,Asthechangekaleidoscopeimplies,thechangeman-

                  

agerneeds

 

considerabledepthandbreadthofunderstandingof

the change

 

contextto

                    

n[lakein貴)rmedjudgments,Second,contingency approaches are more ambiguous and

                

difficulttoe×plainthanthesilnIP1er
“o音theshelf’competition丘omchecklistsandstage

                

models,Third,contingencyapproachesrequireadegreeofbehavioralfle)dbility,especially

             

withregardtostyle,withwhichsomeseniormanagers maybeuncom食)rtableiftheylack

                 

the necessarycapabilities.Fourth,ifmanagers

 

adoptdinerentapproaches

 

at different

                  

timesandindifferentconditions,willthisweakenthe壮credibilitywithstaf胃 Finally,is

            

everythingcontingent?Arethereno“universals”whenitcomestoorganizationalchange?

EXERC聡E

   

1nthischapter,wehaveexploredthreechan9eChecklists,threeStage modelsofimple-

10罰

        

mentation,the processaPProachtochange,andfourcontingencyframeWorks.These

Deyezo夢 箕αグ

 

approachesaresimilarinsomerespectsanddifferentinothers.Cantheybecombined?

ow“C乃α“ge

  

TrythefoHowlngexPeriment:

崩おメメ

     

1. Bringtheadvicefromthesedifferentmodeーsintoasingーelist,omittingtheoverlaps.

          

2一Reflectingonyourownexperienceandknowledgeoforganizationalchange,consider

瀞臓灘園園禦懸轍灘瀦灘翻灘

  

whatissuesandstepsare missingfromtheseguidelines;addthesetoyourmaster

           

list.Now createyourowncompositechange managementmode-;ifpossible,dothis

           

asagroupactivity.

          

3.Can

you

 

prioritizethis

 

advice? 帆′hatitemsare

 

more

 

important,and which

 

are

 

less

            

important?Takingacontingencyapproach,in whichorganizationcontextsdopartic-

           

ularitemsbecome moreorーesssignificant?

          

4.Canyouidentifyapreferredsequenceofchangeimplementationsteps?Andcanyou

            

explainandjustifythisrecommendation?

          

5.Lookingatyourcompositechange managementmodel,identifythree management

           

ski=sassociatedwitheachoftheelements.Usethisasthebasisofapersonaーassess-

           

ment;whatareyourstronqestandyourweakestchanqe manaclementskiーls?

EXERCISE

   

Asyoureadthiscase,considerthefollowin9questions:

10.2

       

,. canorganizationa-cu-turebeb-amedforp-anecrashes? wi=thosecrashesprompt
GezzZ〃g

      

Boeingtochangeitsculture,orcouldtheybeabarriertocu-turechange?

344

 

ChaPterlO

 

C’?”′7ge脳超′74ge/77e′7!RのPe“′1’es

            

4, Checkyouronline newssourcesand

 

bringthiscase historyupto date.Has David

            

Calhoun

 

been

 

ableto

 

changethe

 

culture

 

atBoeing?

 

Have

 

there been

 

any

 

more

             

accidents?VVhatisyourassessmentofDavid Calhoun’schangeleadership?

            

The American

 

companv Boeinq

 

makesairplanes,rockets,satel-ites,telecommunica-

          

Boeing

 

737

 

Max

 

crashed, killin9 189

 

peop-e. Five

 

months

 

ーater,in March

 

2019,an

          

EthiopianAirlines737Maxcrashed,ki=ing157people,lnvestigatorsfoundthattheplane’s

        

new Maneuvering CharacteristicsAugmentationSystem(MCA automaticallyforcedthe

          

aircrafttostallandnosedive,Thissystem hadbeenomittedfromflightmanualsandcrew

        

training.The U,S,FederaIAviation Authority(FAA)groundedthe737 Max.Boeing’srep‐

          

utation was

 

damaged.Butchiefexecutive

 

Dennis

 

Muilenburg

 

decidedto

 

keep making

          

the737

 

Max,to

 

demonstrate

 

confidence

 

inthe

 

plane,eventhoughtheycould

 

notbe

          

sold.Boeingfired Muilenbu『gattheendof2019,and David CalhountookoverasCEO.

            

下o

 

understand

 

how this

 

cou-d

 

have

 

happened,We

 

haveto

 

go

 

backto

 

l997,when

          

Boein9

 

acquired

 

McDonnelー

 

Douglas,a

 

competitorwith

 

 

”financefirstethos.
”Boeing

          

took

 

on

 

many

 

McDonnelI

 

Douglas

 

executives

 

including

 

their

chief

 

executive, Harry

          

Stonecipher,
rwho

 

was

 

known

 

for

 

his

 

ag9ressive

 

cost

 

cutting.ln 2001,Boeing’s

 

chief

          

executiveandthen

 

president,PhiI

 

Conditand

 

HarryStonecipher,decidedto

 

putsome

          

distancebetweenthecompany’s500seniormanagementandstaffandtheplane-mak-

          

ersand movedtheheadquartersto Chicago.-2,00o milesfrom Seattle.Theyexplained

          

thatseniormanagementwas

 

being

 

drawn

 

into day-to-day operational

 

decisions when

          

theyweresoclosetothemanufacturingbase.1nalarge,modern,multinationalcompany,

          

theyfeltthatseniorexecutivesshouldnothavesuchcontactwithengineers.Stonecipher

          

said,
“仇′henpeop-esaylchangedthecultureofBoeing,thatwastheintent,sothatit’s

          

run

 

likea

 

businessratherthana

 

greatengineeringfirm.ltisagreatengineeringfirm,

        

butpeop-einvestin a company becausethey wantto make moneゾ(Useem,2019).

        

StonecipherbecamechiefexecutiveofBoeingin2003(butwasforcedtoresignin2005

        

fo=owinganimproperrelationship withafemaleexecutive).

            

Thepreviouscloseproximityofmanagersandengineersmeant,however,thatsenior

          

executiveshadagoodunderstandingofengineeringissues.They”spokethelanguage

          

ofengineeringandsafetyasa mothertongue,
“andtheycouldseeforthemselveswhat

        

was happening.AS Useem(2019)pointsout,
”The present737 Max disastercan be

          

traced backtwodecades.‐tothe momentBoeing’sleadershipdecidedtodivorceitse

lf

         

fromthefirm’sownculture.
”WithStonecipheraspresident,thenews10gansbecame”a

                

Signallingtheshifttoa”shareholder-firstcuーture,

 

between

 

2014and 2019,Boeing

              

spent

 

$43,4

 

billion

 

on

 

stock

 

buybacks, and

 

only

 

$15,7

 

billion

 

on research

 

and

Chapterl〇

 

CZ7ロ“ge脳云の7αge〃?の”βを濁りに『んes

 

345

                                    


 

  

 

  


  
  
 
  
 
 
 
 

                                                                                                                                                                                                           

 

  

developmentforcommercia-airplanes(Catchpole,2020,p.56).This culture placed

    

short-tenn

 

rewardsto

 

shareholders

 

ahead

 

ofengineering

 

decisions

 

and

 

longer‐term

   

strategy.Boeing’sboardevenapprovedafurther$20billionbuybackinDecember2018,

   

two monthsafterthefirst737Maxcrash(butthatdecision waslaterreversed).

      

Theimmediatecausesofthe737 Maxcrashes weretechnical--fauーtysoftware.But

    

otherfactorshadplayedarole.lntheinterestsofcostandtimeto market,Boeinghad

   

decidedto modi~the737ratherthandesignanewaircraftfrom scratch.下oavoidreg-

    

ulatorydelays,Boeing maintainedthatnoadditionalpiーottraining wasrequiredforthe

   

737 Max.Boeingengineersweresurprisedwhensomesoftwaredevelopmenttasks(not

   

specifictoMCAS)wereoutsourcedtoco=egegraduatesemployedbyanlndiansubcon-

   

tractorinSeattleearning$9anhour.Edpierson,aformerBoeing manage若claimedthat,

    

beforethefatalcrashes,the737Maxhadexperienced morethanadozenothersafety

    

incidents. Pierson

 

said,
“Something

 

happened

 

in

 

the

 

translation

 

from,
‘let’s

 

build

 

   

high‐qualitysafeproducrto‘ーersgetitdoneontimざ Diss,2020).Therewaspressure

on737englneersandtestpilotsandalsoa

 

lotofpressureon

 

productionemployees.
Pierson saw tired vvorkers doingjobsfor whichthey were nottrained,and making
mistakes.Heasked

 

managementtoshutdownthe737factory,buttheyrefused.The

softwarefailureswerethussymptomsofa widermanagementproblem.

 

ln March2020,theHouseTransportationCommittee,oftheU.S.Congress,re-eased

itspreliminaryfindingsfollowingayearofinvestigationintothe737Maxcrashes.Con-

c-udin9thatthesetragicaccidentsweredueto multiplefactors,the Committee’sreport

focusedonfiveissues:

Theimplementationofaggressivecostcuttin9andexcessivepressureonemployees

to maintaintheproductionpressure,duetocompetitionfrom Airbus.

Boeing’sfauーtyassumptionsaboutcriticaltechnologies,andthe MCASsysteminpanic-

u-ar,whichreliedonasinglesensorand wasnotclassedasasafety-criticalsystem.

Boeing’scu-tureofconcealment,withholdingcriticalinformationfromthe FAA,cus-

tomers,andpilots.

Conflicts

 

ofinterestamon9

 

Boeing

 

employees who

 

were

 

authorized

 

to carry out

aviationsafetycertification workonbehalfoftheFAA.

        

・ Boeing’sinfーuenceontheFAパsoversight;FAA managementrejectedsafetyconcerns

           

raisedbytheirownexperts,

         

TheHouse下ransPo性ationComm紙ee(2020,p.13)concluded,
”Theseprelimina~inves-

         

tigativefindingsmakeclearthatBoeing mustcreateand maintainane作ectiveandvigorous

         

safetycultureandtheFAAmustdeveーoPamoreaggressivecenificationandoVersightstruc-

         

turetoensuresafeaircra代designsandtoregaintheconfidenceoftheflyingpublic.
”The

         

focusonfinancehadchangedtherelationshipsbetween

 

Boeing managementand engi-

        

neers:「twastheabiliWtocomfoitabーyinteractwithanengineerwhointurnfeelscomfon‐

         

ab-etelーingyoutheirrese~ations,versuscallingamanager2,00omilesawaywhoyouknow

         

hasarePutationforwantingtotakeyourpensionaway.lt’save~ d旧erentdynamic.Asa

         

redpefordisempowerーngengineersinpa忙iculallyoucouーdn’tcomeupWithabetterformat”

       

(Useem,2019},Boeings”moralcomPasぎ wasbroken,andthefocuson”makingthenur作

       

berざputquali夢andsafetyatrisk.McNultyandMarcus(2019,P.4)claimthat”Boeingshould

       

engageinadeepcultureredesignProcess茅Edmondson(2019)argues,
”Wharsrequiredis

346

 

ChaPterlO

 

Cym′7ge崩乾閉口ge′77g′”ReなPec“・’es

Find on

 

裟ou方ube,
”New Boeing CEO David CalhountakesthereinsbydeveloPingfreshstrate9y”

(2020,3:21minutes),

         

cose sourCes

              

Catchoole-D.2020.Boeing’slongdescent-月リアZz′′だIR1r2、:56一5文

           

TheHouseCommitteeonTransportationandln丘astructure,2020.刀ちgBoe′′7g 万7脳履又吻び喝丹′

             

Co廟,come堺′e′7ces, md/esso′7s方々o′77′Zsde霊宮′7,deye/G羽フ7mちα′?〆ce“前mr/o′?.Washmgton.

          

Useem,J.2019,Thelong-あrgottenf旦ghtthatsentBoeingo菖course.上deqs,November20,

         

https://www.theatlantic,com/ideas/archive/2019/11/how‐boeing‐lost‐its‐bearings,

EXERCISE

   

Asyoureadthiscase,considerthefo=owingquestions:

10.3

       

,. whatーsyourassessmentofthestrengthsandlimitationsofthe3Gapproachtochange?
D諺五[の〃z

   

2.ーfyou wereadvisingthe board ofKraftHeinzonhowto“invigorate“thecompany
CZZOたeo“ 豹e

   

today,whatchanges wou-d yourecommend,and why? Usethe dimensions ofthe

iGRに夢eP

    

changeka-eidoscopetoframeyouradviceconcerningtiming,scope,needforconti-

                 

nuity,diversityofattitudes,capabilityofthoseinvolved,capacityoftheorganization,

園璽極圏鰍

    

readinessforchange,andpowerofthechange manager.

            

3.VVhatmistakeswouldyouadvisetheboardtoavoidwhenimplementingthechanges

             

thatyouarerecommending(refertotabーeslo.landlo.2)?

              

1n2013,Heinz,theiconicfoodcompany withanannualrevenueof$”.6bil-ion,vvas

        

boughtfor$29bi=ionby Warren BuffetrsBerkshire HathawayandtheBrazilianprivate

           

equityfirm 3G Capital.Thenew owners wastednotime makingchanges.Eーevenofthe

           

twelvemostseniorexecutiveswerereplaced,600staffwereーaidoff,thecorporateplanes

          

ata Holiday-nnhotelandnotattheRitz-Carlton,and muchlongerworkinghours were

          

expected.Micro‐managementlimitedeachstaffmemberto200copiesa month;printer

          

usage wastracked,Executiveswerea=owedonlyloobusinesscardsayear,

            

Heinzemployeesreferredto”aninsularmanagementstyleinwhichonlyasmallinner

          

circleknows whatisrealーygoーng on.
” onesaid,

“-t’sa

 

bitlike God-youfee-there’sa

ChaPterlO

 

C乃α′78g虜q′?”ge“7emβe潟夢βα′yes

 

347

           

grandplan,butyouaren’tsure whatitis“{Reingo-dandRoberts,2013,p.189),onthe

          

otherhand,3Ghadayoungteam ofmostlyBrazilianexecutives,who movedasdi「eCted

         

from companytocompanyacrosscountriesandindustries,loyalto3G,notHeinz,and

         

drivento workhardtoreceivebonusesorstockoptions.

           

Thedrivingforcebehindthesechanges Was“The3G い′ay“

 

Which3G hadusedto

          

managechangeinpreviousacquisitionssuchasBurgerKing.Efficiencywaskey,every-

         

thingwasmeasured,andcostswereslashed.lnthisperspective,「eanestand meanest“

         

wins,andhumancapitalwasnotseenasakeycomponentofcorporatesuccess.The

         

assumptionwasthatemployeesweremotivatedbytheeconomicreturnsthatcamefrom

         

owningcompanysharesratherthanbyanysenseofpurposeormission.

           

Thoselikelytobeaffectedbya3Gdealoftensaw a“howto”guide writtenbycon-

          

sultantBobFiferasa“mustread,
“becauseithadbeenpopularwiththepartnersat3G

            

(asithadbeen withJack Welch,theiconicchiefexecutiveatGE).Theguide wastitled,
“Double ourProfits:78 い′aysto CutCosts,lncrease Sales,and DramaticallylmProve

our

 

Bottom

 

Line

 

in

 

 

Months

 

or

 

l‐ess.
” Chaptertitles

 

included“CutCosts

 

First,Ask

QuestionsLater”and“Don’tBeAfraidto Useashotgun,

  

However,inthe mindsofmanyfood

 

industryexperts,whilesomeof3G’s

 

prevlous

acquisitions wou-d

 

have

 

been

 

primecandidatesfora

 

cost-cutting

 

regimen,Heinz was

not

 

an

 

obvious

 

target

 

for

 

that“hack

 

and

 

slash”approach.The company

 

had

 

been

throughseveralyearsofefficiencyimprovementsFslimmingandtrimming”),anditwas

alreadyare-ative-yーeanandefficientoperation.

  

Summingupthesituation,businessjournaーistsJenniferReingoldand DanieIRoberts

(2013,p.186)specu-atedthat”the experimentnow underway willdetermine whether
Heinz will

 

become

 

 

newly

 

invigorated

 

embodimentofefficiency-orwhether3G will

takethecultofcostcuttingsofarthatitchokesoffHeinz’sabilitytoinnovateand make

theproductsthathave madelta marketleaderforalmostacenturyandahaーf.

  

ln2015,Heinzandthefoodindust~ giantKra代announceda mergerthatwouldcreate

anentitywithanannualrevenueof$28bi=ion,thethirdlargestfoodcompanyintheUnited

Statesandthefi代hーargestintheworld.Annualcostsavingsof$1.5bilーionweree×pected.

  

The mergerwasfolloWedbymorecostcutting.However,lessattention waspaidto

changingcustomerpreferences,suchasforhealthyorganicfoodinsteadofprocessed

cheeseandーunch meat.Marginswerealsocutbysupermarketpurchasingstrategies(La
Monica,2019).ーnanattempttogrowfurther,KraftHeinz madeanofferof$143bi-lion

forUnileverin2017一buttheofferwasrejected.FurthercostcuttingatKraftHeinzfailed,

 

leadingtofallingsales,falling operating

 

income,andafallingshare

 

price.Unileve

 

in

contrast,wascomparative-ysuccessful.Cox(2019)said,
“Howthetableshaveturned.

TheCheezWhizgianthas melteddownslnceofferingtobuyUnilever:itsUS$40bi=ion

marketvalueisnowjustaquarterofitserstwhileprey.Uniーever,meanwhile,hasblos

       

somedinto aUs$155billion behemothぞ By2018,KraftHeinz was makinglosses,the

            

sharepricehadfa=enby60percentinovertwoyears,andthesecuritiesandExchange

          

Commission wasinvestigatingitsaccountingpractices.

 

Findonyou77ube,
”VVarrenBuffettonWhatheplanstodowithhisKraftHeinzsharesand3GCaPital”

 

(2019,8:31minutes).

348

 

ChaPterlO

 

C/70′7geルのmge′77emRezspedか弧

         

Cose sou「Ces

         

Carey,D.,Du]maine,B,,andUseem,M,2019,CE0saresuddenlyhavingachangeofheartabout

 

whattheircompaniesshouldstand危r-andthediverging危tesof2 majorcorporationsshow

 

why.β”s′′7ess万難′der,SePtember6,https://www,bus血ess血sider,com.au/ba代-he血斧unilever

 

ceo‐investments‐economy.
Co R.2019.Unilevercan’thelpbutmullaKra代Pounce,Rez′定裕,March8,https://www.reuters,

 

com/article/us‐kra貴-heinz‐unileverbrea頭ngview,
Kell,j,2017.Big危odisgoingtogetevenbigger,恥mme,March15,175(4):11‐12,
La Monica,P,R,2019.Whatwentwrongat]KraftHeinz?C靴wβ“sZ′?盗品February22,httPs://

           

edition,cnn,com/2019/02/22/血vesting/kra作hemz‐stockstrategy/index,htロロ.

        

Reingold,1,and Roberts,D,2013,SqueezingHeinz,恥“”′2e(october28):184-92,https://www.

         

免rbes.com/sites/greatspecuiation/2015/03/30/analysis-ofthe‐虹a作heinz‐merger,

Additiona1

Reading

Balogun,J,,HOPeHailey,v,and Gusta篤son,S,2016,E尤P′のZ′?gszmzegZccあの増a4thed,
HarloW,Esse×:Pearson.VVide-rangingtheoreticalandPracticalte×tonchange manage-

ment,advocatingacontingentaPProachthattailorschangeimplementationtothecon‐

text,basedonthe”changekaleidoscope
”tool,

1)awson,P,,and 山口drioPoulos,C,2017.み名α打αgZ′7gc力α刀ge,creα”vめノα′7d!′7刀oyのZo′?.
3rded,London:SagePublications,AcomPrehensiveandclearlyexplainedaccountofa

processualpersPectiveonchangeandinnovation,theoreticalandpractical,

Kotter,J.P.2012,Accelerate!嵐αryαm β“sZ〃essRel′!鍬 0(11):4 52.ExP1ainshowto

drivestrategic,transfbrmationalchange withoutdisruptingdailyoperations.Thisisa

developmentofKotter’soriginaleight-stage modeloftransft)rInationalchange,

Roundup

DoyoU W0rkwith

 

 

”one

 

SiZefitS

 

ar

aPProachtochange

 

management?下o

what

 

extent

 

do

 

you

 

adapt

 

your

 

ap-

proachtothesca1e

 

andtiming

 

ofthe

change,staffreadiness,yourownrela‐

tivepower,andothercontextfeatures

identifiedinthischapter?

Howcapableareyouinadoptingmore

thanonechangeimage?Areyoumore

comfortablewithatop‐downora

 

bot-

tom-up

 

approach-orsomewhere

 

in

between?Doyouneedtodevelopany

particularskillstoachievegreaterflexi‐

bi-ity(assumingyoubelievethatflexi‐

bi-itywillgiveyouanadvantage)?

lsthere

 

 

dominantchange

 

approach

inyourorganization?lfso,howappro-

priateisit?VVhatwouldyouneedtodo

to

 

modify

 

or

 

replace that

 

dominant

approach?

Howdoyouhandーethemanydifferent

changeinitiativesthatareunfoldingin

ourorganization

 

orbusiness

 

unitata

giventime--whentheseareallatdiffer」

ent

 

stages?

 

ls

 

this

 

 

problem?

 

lf

 

not,
whynot?lfitis,whatisyourpreferred

solution?lfpossible,shareanddiscuss

your

 

responses

 

to

 

this

 

question

 

and

the

 

others

 

in

 

this

 

”reflection” with

co=eagues.

                                                     

ChaPterlO

 

C方q′7geル必α′mge′77e′7rReなPeα′、ぞs

 

349

              

HereisashortsummaryofthekeyPointsthatwewouldlikeyoutotake丘omthischaPter,

                 

inrelationtoeachofthelearningoutcomes:

                

             

                     

 

   

 

                                    

 圏国璽欄                              

 

          

 

      
N[a頭ngchange魚ilisrelativelyeasy;thereare manythingsthatonecan do,and not

do,to

 

achievethatresult,J‐ohn Kotteridentifies

 

eight main 魚ilure 魚ctors:lack of

urgency,nosupportivecoalition,novlslon,Poorcommunication,obstaclestochange

notremoved,no“wins”orachievementstocelebrate,declaringvictorytoosoon,and

notanchoring orembeddingthe

 

changes. Lackofcommunicationis

 

a Particularly

significantcauseofchange態ilure.

Assess物eszre〃gz超 α〃〆助川『α”の7sげc庇cた猿なお“?mmgZ〃g所α〃解 明先”かのノ.
v▽eintroducedthreecheck1istsor”recipes

“おor managingchange:

Boston ConsultingG‐rouP’sDICE modeI
Prosci’sADKAR modeI
Stoutedsevidence‐based model

onestrength oftheseapproachesisthattheyprovideclarityandsimP1icityinanarea

thatcanbecomP1exanduntidy.APotherstrengthisthatdi掻erentcheckliststendtoo鎖er

muchthesameadvice,whichisreassuring,onelimitationisthatthesechec虹iststend

tolackanytheoreticalunderp山ning,relyingo賃enonanargumentthatsoundslike,
‘‘This

worked あrus,soitshouldwork 危ryou,
”From aPractitionerperspective,anotherlim-

itationisthatthesearegeneric“high‐levelguides
“andnotdetailed“bestpractice

”road

maPs.Thechange managerisle貴withthechallengingtaskoftranslatingthisguidance

intoachangeimplementationplanthatwinfittheorganizationalcircumstances.These
chec撞stsdonotsubstitute 危rlocalknowledge,in危rmedjudgment,andcreativity,

 

“/ediscussedthequestionconcerningwhentouseeachofthesechecklists.Asthey
tendto o都erbroadlysimilaradvice,itmaynot matter. However,theyencouragediE
元rent

 

emPhases一DICE

 

ontakingaction based

 

on

 

scoringtheissues,ADKAR on

individualperceptions,and Stouten on 危1lowingtheresearchevidencebase.A more

appropriatequestion,perhaps,ishowtousethesechecklists.Theyshouldbeseenas

high‐levelguidesandnotdetailedroad maPs,andtheywillbehelpfulaslongasthey
arenotusedinatightlyprescriptive manner,buttotriggerdiscussion,diagnosis,and

planning.ltmaybeusefulinsomesettingstoapply morethanonemodeltothesame
changeprogram.Thesecommentsconcerning when andhowto usechange manage‐

mentguidelinesaPP1ytoallthe modelsand官ameworksinthischapter.

Ey叫卿だ 功eqdl耽溺αgesqfszqge′??ode!sげ 効α′?gem解明emem
v~′eintroducedthreestage modelsofchange management:

Lewidsthree‐stage modeI
Kotter’seight‐stagemodeI

McKinsey5A modeI

StagemodelscomplementachecklistaPproachbyemphasizinghowchangeun丘)ldsand

developsovertime,ma紅ngchanging demandsonthechange managerand onthose

who are a”ヨected,ateach stage,A”though changerarely developsina neatandtidy
manner, aPProaching

 

the

 

process

 

in

 

this

 

way

 

encourages

 

the change

 

manager

 

to

350

 

ChaPterlO

 

C77α′?ge脳叱mqg1e′77g′7rRe若sPeα′1’es

              

anticiPateandPrePare貴)rPossiblefutureProblems.ltalsoencouragesa化)cusonthe

               


PiPeline

’’ofchange benefits

 

and on‐how ”leakage

 

duringtheProcesscanleadto

             

disaPPointingoutcomes.ltmayalsobeh‐eIPfultoconsideramoreextendedtimeline,

              

consideringhow pasteVentscou1dinnuencecurrentproPOSa1s,andhow changesWi11

               

besustained,andeventuallydecay,intothe和hire,

翻顧鰹瞳園 Assess物e豹eormcq/鯛〆メαα!m/1’α卿e ザ 街eprocess〃gな〆αれ’eo′?c加〃ge.
TheProcesspersPectivearguesthattheoutcomesofchangeareshapedbythecombina-

tion andinteractionofanumberof態ctorsovertmlein agivencontext,Thosefactors

includetheconteぬ andsubstanceofthechange,theinIP1ementationprocess,andalso

theinternalandexternalorganizationpo互tics.onestrengthoftheprocessPerspectiveis
thatitemPhasizestheroleoforganizationalpo五tics,w垣chisoftenoverlookedorregarded

as marginalbyotheraPProaches.ThePracticaladvicenowing丘omthisPerspectiveis

s加1江artothatProvidedbychecな誼stsandstage mode1s:P1an,tram,com.numcate,1earn

丑om mdstakes,adaPttocircumstances.However,wheresomechangemanagementadvice

recommends“dothis,
“theprocessPersPectiVesays,

“beawareofthis,
“leav節gthechange

managerWiththetaskofreach血gin云ormedjudgmentswithregardtoaPpropriateaction・

 

TheProcessPerspectivehigmightsthecomP1exityandPo互ticizednamreofchangeand

seeschangeasaprocesswithaPast,Present,and 鏡ture,ratherthanasastaticort無]e-
boundedevent. However,there are dangersinthisPersPective,in Presentingchangeas

overcomP1exandunumanageable,inplacingthefbcusonconteぬattheexPenseof血dividual

andteam contributions,and加the角cusonawarenessratherthancleard江rection.

優麗園園園 う“〆印可mば α“‘〆α姿のか の〃ZZ′7ge′?リノ のPro僻みes『ocあの?ge/”α′?αgemem

V~ZePresented化)urcontingencyaPProaches:

”/heretostart?

Changeleadershipstylescontinuum

Stace‐DunPhycontingency matriX

ChangekaleidoscoPe

ContingencyaPProachesarguethatchangeimplementationshouldtakeinto account

theattributesoftheorganizationalcontextconcerned.However,theseapProachesdif

発rwithregardtothecontingencies-thekey 態ctors-thatthechange managerneeds

toconsider.Forexample,
“wheretostart?”arguesthatchangeshouldbeginwiththe


pivotalroles,

” wherechangeswillhavethebiggestimPactonthebehaviorandPer-

あrmancethatisofconcern.Those“
pivotalroles”wilIVary丘om onechangeinitiative

toanother.Thestylescontinuum suggestschoosingachangeleadershipstylebasedon

considerationsofavailabletime,useofavailableexPertise,andstaffcommitment.A
dictatorialaPproachto managementingeneral,andtochange managementinpartic-

ular,Probablyrunscounterto most managementbelie危,However,thestace‐Dunphy

contingencyframeworksuggeststhatwherechangeisVital,timeisshort,andconsensus

isunlikely,adictatorialaPProachismorelikelytobeeぼectiveinachievingmanagement

outcomes.ThemostcomP1exofthesemodels,thechangekaleidoscoPe,identi行eseight

setsofcontext魚ctorsands広setsofchangeimplementationdesignoPtions.Thedesign

oPtions,thisaPProachargues,needtoreflectthecontextdiagnosls,

  

lt mayseem obviousto arguethat“the bestaPproach
” dePendsonthecontext,

However,thisideaof“fitting
”changetothesettingiseasiertoexP1ainintheorythan

351Chapterlo C乃α′?ge崩超″”ge′“e′7rReなPed′yes

toputintopractice.Detaileddiagnosisofthecontexttakestimeandrequiresconsid‐

erablelocalknowledgeandinsight.A contingencyapproach also demandsnLeゴロibility
instyle官om changeleadersand managerswho mLayinso]meinstancesberequiredto

mーoveoutoftheir”com化)rtzones,
”andinconsistentbehaviormayweaken management

credibility.ourtwofinalquestionsare:lsever賃hingcontingentinthisarea?Arethere

nouniversalsinorganizationalchange?

ReferenCes Appelbaum,S.日.,Habashy,S.,N1alo,.-L.,andSha負q,日.2012.BacktotheFuture:

RevisitingKottersl996changemodel.おげ〃〆 〆Mq〃αge′粥川Devdopme〃Z31(8):764‐82

Balogun,J.2006・M[anagingchange:Steeringacoursebetweenintendedstrategiesand

unanticipatedoutcomes.乙o′?gR伽geP/伽可″g39(1):29‐49,

Balogun,.,HopeHailey,v,andGustafsson,S.2016
Harlow,Essex:Pearson.

E工z7め““gs〃”Zegに 叱α“ge.4thed.

Buc又 M.,Han,S.,“akola,D.,andDickson,T.2017a.DisruPtion,丘iction,andchange:nコe
han血arksofatruetrans危rmation,Podcast,New orkandLondon:NICKinsey&Company

Bucy, 1,Fagan,T.,N【araite,B.,andPiaia,C.
NewYorkandLondon:N[cKinsey& Company

2017b.KeepZ〃gzm〃駅o“?筋”o〃s加 加増勘.

Burnes,B.2020.TheoriginsofLewi証sthreostepmodelofchange.靴eおぼれ”/〆4叩/Zed
βe加yZord scze力α 56(1):32一59.

Coch,L.,andFrench,j

l:512‐32.

R.P.1948,〇vercomlngresistancetochange.′三五備IQ刀 Re/傭わ刀s

Cummings,S.,Bridgman,T.,andBrown,K.G‐.2016.Un丘eezingchangeasthreesteps:

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Sourceofopeningquote丘om AynRand:https://blog.hubsPot,com/sales/great-免malo
leader‐quotes

Chapteropeningsilhouettecredit:FunKey Factory/Shutterstock

Manag

ing

 

organ菌zation副

Chang


人4zANAGINGORGANIZATIONALCHANGE:A MULTIPLEPERSPECTNrESAPPROACH,
FOURTHEDITION

PublishedbyMcGrawHilILLC,1325AvenueoftheAmericas,NewYork,NYIO121.Copyright◎2022by
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ExecutivePort危lioManager:八のd7”e/”斜婚期解か
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Title:Managingorganizationalchange:amultipleperspectivesapproach/

 

lanPalmer,RichardDun危rd,DavidA,Buchanan.
Description:Fourthedition.INewYork,N‐Y:McG‐rawHilIEducation,[2022]

 

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mheducation,con・/highered

DEDIICATIION$

From l

an

   

 

  

  

下O Dianne, Matthew,and Michelle

From Richard

 

 

   

下o Jill,Nick,and AIーy

From

 

DaVid

 

 

    

下o Lesley With1oVe-andthanks

A‘know彪dgments

A number ofpeople havecontributedtothisedition,and we owethem alladebt

of

gratitude,including Francis Adeola, UniversityofNew orleans; Terrence R‐,Bishop,
Northern

 

lllino

is

 

University; Frederick

 

Brock〕m‐eier, Northern

 

Kentucky

 

University;

LesleyBu‐chanan;andJames Cornwell,U,S.MilitaryAcademy,晒/emustalsothankthe

manychange managers-to

 

manyto name-with whom we

have

 

exploredthe

issues

addressedinthisbook,あrtheirtime,theirinsights,andtheirwillingnesstosharetheir

experlenceswithus.

IV

Chapter

Purpose and Visi

on

Learning

objectives

Bytheendofthischapteryoushouldbeableto:

璽璽圃

 

Exp-aintheargumentsforandagainsttheconceptsofpurpose{ormission}

andvisionandhow approachestotheseissuesdependontheimageof

managingorganizationalchange.

圏鞭国璽コ

 

Exp-aintheva-ueofac1earorganizationa-purposeormissionstatement

圏麗圏圏

 

1dentifythecharacteristicsofeffectivev-s1ons.

璽璽 園

 

App-ydifferentmethodsandprocessesfordeve1opingv-s1ons・

顔圏圏

 

Exp1ainwhysomev1s1onsfai1.

璽璽圏

 

Exp-ainthecontributionofpurposeandvisiontoorganiZationa1change・

”アわβ′soneWyeor.AneW

beg′“n′ng.And「わ′ngsw′/′

Chonge.

Taylorswift,singer

175

176

chapter

 

乃〃posed′7メメお′の?

r璽震璽麗圃

 

Missions and Visions:FundamentalorFads?

Thereisconfusion betWeentheterms“7Zsszo′7,Pz!′Pose,and 諺鱒○′?.ハ4issionsandvisions

aredifficulttodisentangle,FormLostcommentators,missionstatementsconcerntheover-

ridingpz〃poseoftheorganization(Quinnand Thakor,2018).Broadly,theyanswerthe

question,
“粥?の ろ那′′?essα〆e we“″“Vision,in contrast,concernsthe方′zz′〆eszα『e

ofthe

organization,

anaspirationthatcan mobilizetheenergyandpassionofthe

organization

’s

memLbers,Visionsanswerthequestion, iン77餌dowe wの営 め αc膚eye As missionstate-

mentsconcerntheorganization
’spurpose,theyareaction‐oriented,Visions,incontrast,

describeanultimategoal(Kolowich,2019):

ルメなsZo′7:VVarbyparker

のsわ′?:A1zheimer’s Association

 

Thesearethedef=mtionsofmission(purpose)andvision(鏡tureaspiration)thatwewill

useintmschapter,u!ewmusetheterms′77!ss!の?and駆″poseto meanthesamethゴmg,Bot

印dssionsandvisionscandriveorganizationalchange,Thechangemanagementperspectives

exploredinchapterloemphasizetheimportanceofclearmissionsand meaningfulvisions;

weneedtokllow whatbusmess wearein,andifwedodtkllow whereweareheaded,

it

doesn’t matterwhichdirection wetake.Butthereisdebateover whethertheconceptsof

missionandvisionare飽ndamentaltoeぼectivechange,orwhetherthesearejust魚ds-items

withwhichtodecoratethereceptionareaatthe

company

heado甘iceandthemside丘ont

pageofannualreports.lfyoudoaGooglesearch あr“missionandvisionstatements,
”most

超tswiutakeyouto managementconsultancysiteso爺eringadviceon howto writethese

statements;te唖山gthem apartcanbechallenging-andconfusing.

 

Aswewinsee,missionsandvisionscanbelinkedtostrategyandcompetitiveadvan‐

tage,enhancingorganizationalperformanceandsustaininggrowth.C1earmissionsshould

enable boardsto determine how wellorganizationalleadersare per恥rmingand

which

new businessopportunitiestopursue,Visionsshouldhelpstaffidentiル withtheorgani‐

zationandinspirethe motivationtoachievepersonalandcorporateo切ectives,Thepro‐

cessofdetermining missionsand visionscan enhancetheseIEesteem ofthose who

are

involved,becausetheycanseetheoutcomesoftheire”ヨorts.

 

Aconfused mission andalackofvision,ontheotherhand,canbelinkedtoorgani‐

zationaldeclineand魚ilure,Theabsenceofclearandcompelling missionandvision may

Tooぼerdesignereyewearatarevolutionarypr.ce,

whileleadingtheway貴)rsociallyconscious

businesses

AworldwithoutAJzheimer’sdisease

lt’shardtoimaginehowyouremployeescanperform

iftheydon’t

 

underst

and

 

your

company’s

 

purpose,
Howcantheycometoworkeverydayreadytofur-

therthebusinessiftheydon’tknowwhatyourorga-

nizationistryingtoaccomplishandhowtheirjobs
supportthosegoals? etinarecentsurveyof

more

than

 

540

 

employees worldwide

 

conducted

 

by
pwc,sstrategyconsultingbusiness,strategy&,only
28

 

percent

 

of

 

respondentsreported

 

feelin9

 

fully

motivated,passionate,orexcitedabouttheirjobs.
(B1ountandLeinwald,2019,p,134)

connectedtotheircompany’spurpose,Just39per-

centsaidtheycouldcーear-yseethevaーuetheycreate,
amere22percentagreedthattheirjobsa-lowthern

tofullyleveragetheirstrengths,andonly34percent

thoughttheystronglycontributetotheircompany’s

success.Morethan

 

ha-fweren’teven“somewhat“

Chapter6

 

Pmposeの7d″おゎ“ 177

e×P1ainwhysomecompanies魚iltoexploittheircorecomPetenciesdespitehaving

access

toadequateresources.Businessstrategieslackinginpurposeandvisionmay魚iltoident

whenorganizationalchangeandafreshdirectionarerequired.Lackofanadequatepro-

cessあrtranslatingsharedvisionintocollectiveaction maybeassociated withthe態ilure
toproducetrans云ormationalorganizationalchange.

 

Theconceptofvisionisparticularlypowerful.However,itremainscontroversialand

invitescynlc・sm wheneveryorganizationhasthesameblandvisionthatincludes“excel‐

lence,
”“corporateresponsibility,

”“empowered employees,
”and “delighted customers.

Aユthoughthereisalotofadviceonhowtodevelop missionsandvisions,thereislittle
or no

 

consensus

 

on

 

e爺ective

 

approaches.Some

 

commentators

 

have arguedth

atthe

preoccupation withthesestatementshas meantthatthetermshavebeen overusedand

trivializedandareindangeroflosinganyvaluetheymayhavehad.

 

Debatesaroundde賃nitionandsubstancedonotthemselvesinvalidatetheseconcepts.
Thechallenge危rthechange manageristoavoidabstractstatementsthatgivelittledetail.
ontheotherhand,statementsthat危cusin‐depthonshort‐term goalsarealsooflimited

va1ue,\八′eneedto workbetweenthesetwoextremes,Theseargumentspointtoadeeper

understanding;Thelinksbetween mission,vlslon,and changedependontheimageof

change managementinuse・Table

 

6.・summarizesthe di爺erentunderstandingsofeach

TABLE6コ
Changeハ4anagementlmage,ハ4isSi0n,aIIdvisi○n:LinksandFocus

lmage

    

Missions/、′isions‐ChangeLink

     

FocusingAttentionon

D′redo「

  

Missions/visionsareessential

to

    

Thereisaneedforclearmissions/visionsto

drive

 

      

successfulchangeand must

be

     

changelinkedtostrategyandgoaーs.

      

articulatedatanearlystageby

    

Anal〆icalandbenchmarkingprocessesshouldbeused.

       

ーeaders.

          

        

Contextaffectstheimpactof

missions/visions.

                 

 

 

 

         

Thereisatop‐downresponsibilitytote=/se=the

               

  

 

 

          

missions/visions.

~ov勾oror

 

Missions/visionsareimportantbut

  

Missions/visionsaretheproductofdebate.

       

canbecompromisedbycompetin9

  

Thechangemanagerhastohandle“mission/

vision

        

viewsofdifferentstakehoーders.

    

collision”whencompetinggroupsdisagree.

Core『Qker

 

Externa-forcesshapethe

change

   

Visionaryorcharismaticleadershaveーimitedimp

act

       

process,and missions/visionsrarely

  

whenmissions/visionsarenotrelatedtotheevents

      

haveamajorinfluence.

       

drivenbythoseexternalforces.

Cooch

    

Missions/visionsemergethroughthe

  

Missions/Visionsemergethroughconsultationand

       

leader’sfacilitationski=s,shaping

    

co‐creation.

       

agendasanddesiredfutures.

      

Missions/visionswi=failwithoutparticipation.

′nferprefer

 

Missions/Visionsarticulatethecore

  

Missions/Visionsaredevelopedintuitively

through

       

valuesandideologythatunderp

in

   

imageryandimagination,usingframing,scripting,and

       

theor

 

anization’sidentit.

       

sta

 

in

 

techni

 

ues.

178

 

Chapter6

 

P”′poseの74“s′。〃

 

           

tP0age.Y『oucan usethistabletoidentiぜyhow differentimages 化)cusattention on

some

            

issuesandapproaches,andnotothers.

 

             

lnthischapter,wewillfirstexploretheconceptoforganizationalmissionorpurpose,

            

whatthismeans,howthisdrivesorganizationalchange,thebene行tsofbeinga

purpose-

           

driven”organization,andthelanguageinwhich mission orpurposestatementsarebest

          

expressed.V▽ewnlthenturntotheconceptofVision,which mayhaveeven moreimpact

            

asadriverofchange,Thisdependsonthecontentofthevisionandtheprocessthrough

       

whichthevisionisdeveloped. Wethenidenti whyvisionscan 魚ilto producetheir

            

desj崖redeがects,Finally,we化)cusonthreecontroversialissuesconcerningtherole

ofvision

            

inorganizationalchange,F”st,doesvisioninitiateanddrivechange,ordoesit

emerge

            

as

 

changeun賞)lds?

 

Second,doesvision

help

 

orhinder

 

change?

 

Third,isvision best

            

understood asan attributeofheroicleadersorofheroic organizations?Theperceptive

            

readerwinnotethatthesedebatesa1soapp1yto missions,butwehaveavoideddup1icating

            

thisdiscusslon・

国璽霊園

 

Mission:VVhy AreVVe Here?

柵1yl)。 W,-,C0・・I〔,tqwo嶋滋三きデー謡

ASmuchaSyoumaytrytomotiVateemployeeSwith

   

workers.Andthemoreyoualigntherightta-ent,op-

slogansorextrinsicrewards,youwon’tachieveex‐

  

erating

 

model,andfinancia-

 

resourcestosupport

Cellence

 

if

your

 

people

 

don’tknow whytheyare

   

yourpurpose,thebetterableemployeeswillbeto

comingtoworkeverydayatyourfirm.Theclearer

   

de-iveronit.Purposeisthekeytomotivation--and

youcahbeaboutwhatValueyourCompanycreates

   

motivatedemp-oyeesarethekeytorealizingyour

andforwhom,thegreateryourabilitytoinspireyour

  

purpose.(E;lountandLeinwand,2019,p.139)

 

Manyemployees-notjustMinennialsand GenZーWanttoWork あrorganizationswhose

missionsandbusinessphilosophiesresonatewiththemintenectuallyandemotionany(see
chapter3).Seniormanagementneedstocommunicatewhythecompanyeぬsts(whatvalue

itcreatesand 危rwhom)ina waythatiseasy あremployeestounderstand.But

mission

orPurPosestatements o貴entalkabout”beingthe comPanyofchoice”or”maxl1nlz・ng

shareholdervalue,
“Thesevaguestatementsdonotsaywhattheorganizationdoesor

who

itscustomersare.Theconfusionbetween mission,purpose,andvisioncan1eadcompanies

to produceseveraldifferentstatements,causingfurtherconfusion, However,a powerful

statementofPurposemeetstwoo団ectives:clearlyarticulatingstrategicgoalsandincreasing

workaorce motivation,B1ountand Leinwand(2019,P,134)arguethat,to achievethose

o回ectives,purposestatementshavetoanswerquestionssuchas,
“粥IQZZSJノ似preαso′?ルr

ex加増p””解?α『1’m乙!eqr琴似gzliz′?顔貌‘だ乙′srome′rand“卿7)ぼり肌′r舟′77m7御′のcのαふた

           

 

1K」EAiso賃encitedasacompanywithaclear messageaboutitspurpose.ltpromises
“tocreateabettereverydaylif℃貢)rthemanypeoP1e

“一asdistinct丘omthea]ばluent発w-by
“○爺eringawiderangeofwell‐designed,functionalhomefurnishingproductsatPrices

so

low thatas manypeople aspossiblewi旦beableto

 

a節ordthem.
’’ Henryschein,who

Chapter6 Pmposeの7メメデ瀞。“

 

179

ProvidesProductsandservices食)rmedicalanddentaIPractitioners,alsohasawell‐defined

purpose:‘Toprovideinnovative,integratedhealthcareproductsandservices,andtobe
trusted

 

adVisors

 

and

 

consultantsto

 

ourcustomers,enablingthem to deliverthebest

qualitypatientcareandenhancetheirpractice managemente]日目ciencyandpro負tability“

(B1ountandLeinwand,2〇19,P.136)・B1ountandLeinwa1dsuggestthatboardmembers

shouldbeasldngthe managementteamthese

questions:

lfweweretoPutourpurposestatementalongsideacomPetitor
’s,couldouremP1oyees

identi~ whichone wasours?

lfweaskedouremployees,how manycouldsay whatourpurPoseis?

DoouremP1oyeeshavetheresourcesrequiredtodeliveronourpromisestocustomers?

Chobani,America’sleadin9Greekyogurtbrand,

has

developeda”purposefu-organizationcu-ture.

The

company’s

 

purpose

 

is

 

”betterfoodformore

 

peo-

p-e/’VVorkers

 

in

 

Chobani’s

 

New

 

Vorkfactory

 

are

paid

 

doub-e

 

the

 

m-nlmum

 

wage,and

 

they

 

own

lo

 

percent

 

of

 

thelcompany

 

through

 

its

 

equity-

sharingscheme.Chobani’sfounder,HamdiU1ukaya,
believes

that

 

peopletake

 

prideand

 

ownership

 

in

thebrandandaremorehighーymotivatedwhenthey
haveastakeinthecompany.Thebrandalsofunds

start-ups

 

in

 

health

 

and

 

wellness

 

through

 

the

Chobani

 

Foundation

 

and

 

the

 

Chobani

 

lncubator.
Chobania-sohiresandsupportsrefugees,incoali-

tionwith80companieswiththesameaim.U1ukaya

says,
”Theminutetheygotthejob,tharstheminute

theystoppedbeingrefugees.
“Mostemployeesto-

daywantmorethanawage.Milーennialsinparticular

wantto

 

work

 

fororganizations

 

like

 

Chobani

 

that

makea meaningfufcontributiontosociety(based

onMainwairing,2018).

  

ResearchintoraPidlygrowingcompaniesinA立nerica,Europe,andlndiabyM【alnight

etal.(2019,P.72)suggeststhatpurposeisadriveroforganizationalgrowth(alongwith

creatingnew markets,servingbroaderstakeholderneeds,and“changingtherulesofthe

gam ).PurPoseisnotjustadecorativestatement;itcangeneratesustainedProfi

table

gro~砿h.They note(p.77)that“acompellingpurPoseclari賃es whatacompanystands

云or,Providesanimpetus化)raction,andisaspirationaL

 

ForMalnightetal.(2019),purposeP1aystwostrategicroles-bothpotentialdriversof

change.Thefirstroleisだα所用′?gz庇 〆のけ胆力〆α.lnsteadofcomPeting危rashareofa

defined market,high-groWthcomPanies,guidedbytheirpurpose,look化)rother,broader

marketopportunities.Malnightetal.(2019,P.74)citethecontrastbetweenNestlePurina

Petcare,theleadingcompanyinNorthAI1nerica,andハイ【arsPetcare,thegloballeaderin

his

 

sector.The purposeofPurinais“betterwithPets.
” Petcare’spurposeis“a better

world化)rpets.
“Purinahascontinuedto化)cusonpetfbods.ButM[arsPetcarehasdiveF

sifiedinto

 

pethealth,byinvestingin veterinaryservices,andisnow thelargestand

魚stest‐growingbusinessdivisionin凸darslncorPorated.Thischange workedbecausethe
trans免rmation wasconsistentwiththecompany

’scorepurpose.

Find on 質o明記のe,
”ChobaniCEO HamdiU1ukaya on how businessescanstep upforrefugees“(2019,

7minutes).

180

 

Chapter6

 

月′′poseα〃α巧s′o′7

              

Thesecondroleisrどぶ方αP!′7g 豹el’α/”eProP餌!Zわ′7.VVhencomPetitionerodes margins,

           

mostorganizationslook食)rinnovativenew Products,services,andbusiness models,This

            

can generate

 

short‐term gains,butthese

 

arelimitedbyeXisting market

 

structures-the

          

“ecosystem”ーin

 

which

 

an

 

organization

 

operates, A purpose‐driven aPProach helpsthe

       

organizationgrowintonewecosystems.Malnightetal.(2019)suggestthattherearethree

           

waysinwhichthisgrowth canhaPPen,byresPondingtotrends,buildingontrust,and

            

“化)cusingonPainpoints
“:

            

1,人影sPo′74″7grorだ′7ぬ,SecuritasAB,aSwedishsecuritycompany,o爺eredatraditional

              

securityguard service,Thechanging natureofrisk,risinglaborcosts,and cheaper

              

technology,however,encouragedthe comPanytostartusing electronic

 

securitysys-

              

tems,o爺ering enhanced protection usingremotesurveillance,withdigitalrePorting.

              

Goingbeyondreactive

 

security,in

 

2018

 

the

 

companystartedto

 

develop predictive

          

securitysystems,whichcontinuedtobuildontheircorepurPose,withstrongerclient

          

relationsandhighermargins,

        

2,β駆艦!′7gの7勿‘立Togrowsalesofvehiclefinancmginlargelyuninsuredruralmarkets,

          

Mahindra Financehadtobuildtrustwithnew customers.Thisinvolved determining

          

thecreditworthinessofPoor,initeratecustomers,whohadnobankaccountsorcollat-

          

eral.Thisalso meantsettingup branchesinnewlocationsandrecruiting

employees

          

whocouldsPeaklocaldialectsand work ontheirowninitiative.Thecompany

also

          

hadtoredesignloans,customeraPprovals,andrePaymentterms,and organizecash

          

rePayments, Havingbuilttrustwiththosecustomers, MahindrastartedtosenequiP‐

          

ment,li篤,andhealthinsuranceto 態rmers,in a marketwhereinsurancePenetration

          

isbelow4Percent.Thisexpansion wasdrivenbythecompanゾspurpose,whichisto

          

improve

 

customers’lives,caPturedbythe word

 

”Rise.
“ Thechiefexecutive,Anand

          

Mahindrahopesthatthe

 

company
’s purpose “willinspire

 

employees

 

to acceptno

         

limits,thinkalternatively,anddrivepositivechangげ(Malnight,2019,P,75).

         

3. 凡α〃sZ′7g の7Pの′7POZ′?な.lnsearchofother waysto“create abetterworldfbrpets,

               

M【ars Petcare hasdeveloped waysofdiagnosingandPreventingPethealthproblems.

             

TheyboughtacomPanythatmadesmartco11ars云oractivity monitoringand1ocation

         

trac亙ng Fitbitあrdogs
”),Combiningdataanal賃ics,machinelearning,andveterinary

         

expertise,thisapproachidentineschangesinbehaviorthatcouldidentiルhealthprob-

               

1ems,1eadingtoear1ytreatment.

         

Malnightetal.(2019,p.77)suggestthattherearetwoapProachestodefiningcorPo‐

        

ratepurpose:

          

・ Arどかoこめec館形aPProachhasaninternal化)cusandisbasedontheorganization
’scur

rent

             

reason長)rbeing,basedonitspasthistory,
“VVherehavewecome丘om?Howdid

we

         

gethere?”

          

 

A 〃〆。sped/yeaPproachtakesan externalperspectiveandredefinestheorganization
’s

             

purPosebyloo超LngForward.
“VVhichtrendsal爺ectourbusiness?VVhatnew oPportuni‐

              

tieslieahead?”

              

TheyidentifythreebeneEitstotheorganizationofclarifyingandcommunicatingpur‐

             

pose,F立st,aclearpurPosecanunifytheorganizationandheIPsta甘tounderstandthe

           

directionthattheorganizationista]hng.Second,purposeismotivating.Asalreadynoted,

ChaPter6

 

Pz〃P卵ed′7d鋒sわ′7

 

181

e]ぽIp1oyeesingeneral,andム4i1lennialsinparticular,expecttheir worktoContributetoa

highercause-apurpose-whichcanalsoincreasethetrustthatcustomers,suppliers,and

otherstakeholdersplacein

theorganization.

Third,clarityofpurposecanhaveasignif
icanti・ローpactonorganizationalchangeandperlt)rl・lance.

 

Researchbythe managementconsultingfirm Deloitte(0’Brienetal.,2019,pp.7-8)
suggeststhatpurpose‐drivencompanieshave:

strongergainsin marketshare

higherproductivityandgroMhrates

a moresatisfied work云orce

highercustomersatislaction

30percenthigherlevelsofinnovationthantheircompetitors

40percenthigherlevelsofemployeeretentionthantheircompetitors

ln2019,ourconsumersurveyshowedthatprice

and

 

quaーity

 

remain

 

the biggestfactors

 

drivin9

customerdecisions,However,manyofthesame

respondents(55

 

percent) believe

 

businesses

today

 

have

 

 

greater

 

responsibi1ity

 

to

 

act

 

on

issues

 

relatedtotheirpurpose.Thosefai-ingto

dosoriskbeingdisp-acedbypurpose‐drivendis-

ruptors.Forexamp-e,Uni-ever’s28“sustainable

living“brands(i.e.,brandsfocusedonreducin9
Unilever’senvironmenta-footprintandincreaslng

socialimpact)suchasDove,Vaseline,andLipton

delivered

 

75

 

percentofthe

 

company’sgrowth

andgrew69percentfasteronavera9ethanthe

restofitsbusinessesin2018(comparedto46per‐

centin2017).Soap,petroleumjelly,andteaare

eve~dayhousehoーdessentials,butbypromoting

sustainabーeliving,theseproductsbecamedi什er-

entiatedastheyembodythecompany’spurpose.
(びBrieneta-り2019,p,8)

The Language of Mission Statements

Thelanguagethatanorganizationusestocommunicateitspurposeormissioncana節ect

employeecommitmentandperlt)rmance.Butaswehavediscussed, manyorganizations

use mission statementsthatuse abstract,conceptualterms. Murphy and C1ark(2016)

notethatorganizationstendtousethesamecorporate‐speak:
“striving貴)rexcellence”or

”deliveringcutting‐edgeservicesinaglobalmarketplace.
“Theyciteabankwhose mission

stateinentreads:

ThemissionofPeoP1e’sCommunityBankistobethePre発rredindePendentcommunity
bankwhich meetsandexceedstheexpectationsofourcustomersandcommunities,bypro‐

vidingexcellentcustomerservice,productsandvalue,whilemaximizingshareholderreturn,
alongwith maintainingthewell‐beingandsatisfactionofouremployees.

Find

 

on

 

OU力ube,
”Putpurpose

 

atthe

 

coreofstrategy.一interview with

 

IMD ProfessorThomas

 

Malnighで

(2019,3minutes).

182

 

chapter6

 

P乙″poseの7d““。〃

TABLE

6.2

TheLanguageof工Mission

statements

StatementsUsinglmagery

    

                

StatementsUsingAbstractions

下oPutjoyinkidgheartsandasmileonParentざfaces

  

下obetheWorldleaderin,=

下odetectaPreviouslyundetectabletumorinsidea

    

下obetherecognizedPerformanceleaderin.“
humanlungbyaskingaPatienttobreatheintoa

      

下obethemosttrustedProviderof.”
deviceーikeours

   

 

 

  

  

 

                 

下obea-ead-ngcomPanydeliveringimProved
下o makePeoP1e-augh shareholderValue
下。ensurethesecurityandfreedomofournation

from

  

createabettereverydaylifeformanyPeOP1e
underseatoouterspace,andincybersPace

         

下ocreatelong-termValueforCustomers,
W′ebelieveinlongCandlelitbaths,fillingtheworld

     

shareho-ders,emP-oyees
withPerfume

  

   

  

  

                  

下ocreateabetterfutureeVeryday
Acomputeroneverydeskandinevery

home

  

Fora missionstatementtoencourageas方αredsenseofPurPose,ithasto useViVid

concreteimagerythatpeoplecanvisualizeandinterpretinthesameway,Theycitethe
missionstatementofa manu魚cturerofwearableroboticprostheticdevices:

0neday,ourrobotice×oskeletonswillbeaviableandaccessibleoPtion食)rthemー日lionsof

wheelchairuserswhowanttheoptiontostandupandwalk.

  

Table6.2showsexamplesofrealcompany missionstatements,usingconcreteimagery

andabstractions・V▽hichwillbemoree”当ectiveincreatingasharedsenseoftheorgani-

zation’spurpose?

 

Theevidencesuggeststhatmanycompaniesignorethisadvice,lntheirannualreview

ofcorporategovernance,theUKFinanciaIReportingCouncil(2020,p.9)concludedthat:

Too manycomーPaniessubstitutedwhataPPearedtobeasloganormarketingline文)rtheir

purposeorrestrictedittoachievingshareholderreturnsandprofit,Reportinginthese

wayssuggeststhatmanycompanieshavenotFullyconsideredpurposeanditsimportance

inrelationtocultureandstrategy,norhavetheysun「icientlyconsideredtheviewsofstake-
holdersintheifPurposestatements.Thebestreportingdescribedpurposebyconsider無git

alongsidecultureandstrategyinawaythatdemonstratedthecompanyhadthoughtab

out

purposeel”Fectively.

Gabrie=eBosche(2019)offersthefollowingexam‐

plesof“best“and”worst”missionstatementsfrom

leadingAmericanorganizations,Doyouagreewith

herassessment,ornot?W′hy?

the Best

 

AmaZ0n 下obeEarth’smostcustomer‐centric

company,

where

 

customers

 

can

find

 

and discover

 

anything

 

they

mightwantto

 

buyonline,and

 

en-

deavorsto

 

offerits

 

customersthe

lowestpossibleprices

下obecomethenumberlfashiondes-

tinationfor20‐somethingsglobally

下oimproveourcustomers’financial

lives

 

so

 

profound1y,they

 

couldn’t

imaginegoingbacktotheoldway

Chapter6

 

乃″poseの7dの嗣o′7

 

183

VVho1e

Foods

い′almart

American

RedCross

Southw「est

下heML{orsr

 

Disney

ourdeepestPurposeasanorgan1-

zationishelpingsupportthehealth,
well‐being, and healing

 

of

 

both

People一一customers, Team

 

Men・-

bers,andbusinessorganizationsin

general--andtheP1anet

VVesavepeoplemoneysotheycan

livebetter

下o

 

preVent

 

and

 

alleViate

human

sufferinginthefaceofemergencies

by mobi-izingthe

 

Powerofvo1un-

teersandthegenerosityofdonors

下oprovideauthentichosPitalityby

makingadifference

 

intheーivesof

thepeoplewetoucheveryday

下o

 

be

 

one

 

ofthe world’s

 

leadin9

Producers

 

and

 

providers

 

ofenter-

tainmentandinformation,usingits

Portfo-io

 

ofbrandstodifferentiate

itscontent,servicesandconsumer

Products

下obeacompanythatinspiresand

fulfiーlsyourcuriosity

Shapethefutureofthelnternetby

creating

 

unPrecedentedvalueand

oPPortunityforourcustomers,em‐

P1oyees,investors,and

 

ecosystem

Partners

The

Home

 

Depot

 

is

 

in

 

the

 

home

imProvementbusinessandourgoal

is

 

to

 

provide

 

the highest

 

level

 

of

service,the

 

broadestselection

 

of

ProductsandthemostcomPetitive

Prーces

下ocoーlect,Preserve,study,exhibit,
andstimulateapPreciationforand

advanceknowーedgeofworksofart

that

 

collectively represent

 

the

broadest spectrum

 

of

 

human

achievementatthehighestーevelof

quality,allintheserviceofthePub‐

licandinaccordancewiththehigh-

estprofessionalstandards

Home

Depot

*MuseumofModemArt,New ork.

璽璽璽劇Vision: W′here Are 凶′e Going?

Creatinga

 

unifyingvisionforanorganizationis

afundamenta-

 

skillforleaders.Asimple,bold,
inspirational

 

vision

 

can

 

feelalmost

 

magical:it

bringsPeoP1ethroughoutthecompanytogether

around

 

 

common

 

goaland

 

Provides

 

 

focaI

Point

 

for

 

developing

 

strategies

 

to achieve

 

betterfuture.(AshkenasandManville,2019,P,2)

The

 

evidence

 

Suggeststhate鎖ectivevIS1on

 

StatementS

 

have positive conSequenceS,but

what makesvisions“visionary
’iSnotclear.SomecommentatorsFocusontheContentof

vlslon

 

Statements. others

 

explorethecontextin which visionS

 

are used. Theroles

 

of

leadersinarticulatingv・SI。ns,andtheprocessbywhichvisionsaredeveloped,havealso

attractedattention.Here,wewillconsiderthecontentofvisions,includingtheirStyleand

otherattributeS.

Vision Attributes

Table6.3ShowsseveraldefinitionSoforganizati。nalvision.Aswediscussedearlier,most

ofthesedefinitionsre篤rtoafutureortoanidealtowhichorganizati。nalchangeShould

184

 

Chapter6

 

P”′posed′?〆“s′o′7

 

Definitions Sources

A1eade sstatementofadesired,long‐term

future

 

Kirkpatrick(2017,p‘87)

stateforanorganization

ーmageofan”idealfuturerltisaspirationaland

   

HainesetaL(2005,p.139)

 

idealistic,aguidingStarWithdreamlikequalities

Apictureofthefutureofourorganization

     

Austeretal.(2005,p,50)

Adetaileddescriptionofadesiredfuturethat

    

BelgardandRayner(2004,p.竹6)
providesclarityastohowtheorganizationw川

needtooperatedifferentlyinordertomeetthe

changingconditionsofitsmarkets,customers,
andovera=businessenvironment

TABLE

6.3

Vision

Definitions

bedirected.ThevisionitselfisPresentedasaPictureorimagethatservesasaguideto

that位ture.VisionscanthusbeinsPiring,motivational,emotional,oranalytical,dePending

on whosedefinitionweareus・ng.

 

Definitionsdonotnecessari1yhe1Ptodeterminetheactua1contentofvisionsモqmber1y

Boaland RobertHooりberg(2ml)arguethatvisionshavetwocomPonents:

・ Cogmmノg(intellectual),Basedonin危rmationandexPressesoutcomesand howthese

 

willbeachieved

 

A脈emve(emotional).APPealstovaluesandbelie危,andthusunderpinsthe motivation

 

andcommitmentthatarekeytoimP1ementation

 

Table6,4summarizestheviewsofcommentatorsonthecomPonentsofan e鎖ective

vlslon. Mostcommentarypointstosimilarattributes,suggestingthatvisionsshouldbe

asPilational,clear,desirable,distinctive,easyto

 

communicate, 免asible, neぬble,future-

focused,insPiring, meaningful, memorable,and motivating,allditshouldrecognizethe

problems魚cingtheorganization,

  

Tobe motivating,a v・slon mayneed another,counter

intuitive

 

comPonent, Change

managersareo代enadvisedto makeclearhowbadthingsareandemPhasizetheurgency

ofchange,Thisis“burningP1atlbrm”theory,in whichabreakwiththePastpromisesa

brightnew future. This

 

soundslogical

 

and Positive.ButpeoP1e

 

also value

 

coherence,
consistency,andcontinuity.Visionsthato爺ertobreakwiththePast maybethreatening

anddiscouragesuPPort.Venusetal.(2019)arguethatPeoplearelikelytoresistchanges

thattheyseeasthreateningtothe立senseoforganizationalcontinuity.Visionsthato都er

m司orchanges,howeverexcitingandinnovative,canbedemotivating.Sohowcanchange

managers motivatewithvision?TheansweristhatavisionthatPromotescontinuityas

wellaschangewillreduceuncertaintyandreduceresistance.Venusetal.(2019,p.684)

exP1oretheimP1ications云orchange managementPracticeinthe量)1lowingterms:

UnlikeengaginginstrategiessuchascreatingadissatislactionWiththestatusquo,and

consequently,aneed化)rchange,andPortrayingchangeashighlyattractive,managers

oughttoemphasizea1sothatWhichisnotgoingtochange.lfunWi1lingnesstocontribute

tochangeisrootedinconcernsaboutaPotentialdiscontinuityofthecentralaspectsof

theorganizationalidentity,then managersoughttoassureemployeesthatthiswillnotbe

chapter6

 

Pmposeの74〆お′の7

 

185

TABLE6.4

    

characteristics AdvocateS
The

Characteristics

   

Providesaclearsenseofcontinuityoforganizationalidentity

 

Venusetal.(2019)

ofEf絶ctive

    

UsesimagebasedrhetorictopaintaconcretePictureof

   

CartonandLucas(2018)

           

M7げd.Providesastriking mentaーimageofthefuture

           

′nsp′“ng,CaPturestheheart,andengagesPeoPーeto

          

committoaca

use

Th・-・V,・lu・二・ofEffごctiv(.Vi~ion~

186

 

Cha er6

 

Pz′′Posed′7d“s′○′7

          

Cartonand Lucas(2018)notethatwhen wethinkaboutthefUture,wetendtothink

         

inabstractterms.Senior managers maybeadvisedtothinkinthisway when creating

         

theirorganization
’svision,whichoftenturnsouttobesomethinglike“aiming危rexcel…

         

lence,
”‘‘changethe world,

”or”servethecommunity,
”Visionslikethesearevague;there

         

aretoomanydi爺erentinterPretations,However,thismeansthattheyarenottruly
“vision-

         

ary.
”Tmshappensbecause,when wethinkabouthow wearegoingtouselanguage,we

         

activate 豹e′72gαm″gわαsedsysrの鶴 whichhandlesabstractconcePtssuch as”bettercus-

         

tomerservice.
’’The meaning-basedsystem relieson abstractrhetoric.

          

Theuseofabstractrhetoricleadsto whatCartonalldLucascall“blurryvisionbias.

         

Thisisbasedinparton how wethinkaboutthefuture,Asithasnothappenedyet,we

         

cannotsee or 危elit,so wetendtorely on an abstractunderstandingofwhatitwill

         

mean:providingexcellentcustomerservice.Carton and Lucasarguethatthistendency

         

isparticularly markedinthose who are mostlikelytoberesponsiblefbてcraftingthe

           

organization
’svision-seniormanagers-becausethoseinpositionsofpowertendtothink

         

          

n broad,abstracttermsabouttheorganization
’sstrategy.

          

lncontrast,豹eexz7erZe〃ce‐る鯛ed球櫛e〃?Processessensoryin恥rmationabouttheworld

             

andanowsustoi1naginerea1-1if℃experiencessuchas“seeingcustomerssIni1eastheyeat

       

inourrestaurants.
“Thissystem usesimagebasedrhetoric-languagethatdepictso輔ects

       

(cars),actions(driving),andevents(landingonthe moon).lmagebasedrhetoric also

           

engagestheemotions,ismorememorable,andisthere]R)remoremotivating,andislikely

            

toencourageaction:

            

N1eetjngaPersonwhobenefits丘om one’sheIPismoremotivatingthanreadingaboutit;

          

seeingonePersondieuPclosea爺ectsmoraljudgmentmorethandoesdroppingabombon

            

thousands丑om adistance;andobservingameasuringcuPcontainingtheamountofsugar

            

inonesodadetersso代drinkconsumPtion morethanreadingaboutcaloriccontent.Astory

            

ofasmglehungryChildelicitedmoreCharitablegivmgcomParedtostatisticsaboutthousands

            

ofstarvingvillagers,andPeopleweremorelikelytoquitsmo糧山gwhentheyreadabout

            

howtheirhabitCausedPeoP1eto“reelbackindisgustfromthesmoker’sPutridodor”than

          

whentheyreadaboutitsadversehealthe爺ects.(CartonandLucas,2018,P.2108)

             

B1urryvisionbiashappensbecause managersrely moreheavilyonthe meaning‐based

            

system intheir

 

choice

 

oflanguage.This

 

can be

 

overcomebyrelying

instead

 

on the

            

experience-basedsystem andimage-basedrhetoric,Thelatterdescribeshowtheworldwill

           

look,sound,and 篤elwhentheorganization
’svisionisachieved,H[owever,thisinvolves

           

morethan

 

asi.訂ーP1e

 

changeinthe

 

choiceoflanguagein Whichto

 

expressthe vision.

            

Carton and Lucasarguethat,ifyou don’thaveaconcreteimagein mind,you aresti且

             

likelytoendup withabstractblurryvisionbias.

         

Toovercomeblurryvisionbias,CartonandLucas(2018,P.2107)suggestthedeliberate

        

useofthetechniqueofre“zpoメメ メのed/o′?,which means:

mentallyPrqiectingoneselftoamomentinthedistantfuture,akinto mentaltimetravel-

thattargetstheexperience‐basedsystemratherthanthemeaning‐basedsystem.Rather

thanContemP1atethedistantfutureabstractly,thistacticimPelsleaderstoimaginethe

futureinvividdetail,asiftheyaredirectlyobservingafuturescenariothroughfiロsthand

observation.ByvividlydePictinganeventoroutcomethatanorganizationCanoneday

realize,image‐basedrhetoricreflectsthenotionthatavisionisa”Portrait”ofanideal

短tureandunderscorestheveryessenceoftheword“visioが-theabilitytosee,(Carton

andLucas,2018,P,2107)

Chapter6

 

P”ゆoseの可 巧sわ〃

 

187

 

11laseriesofexperiments,CartonandLucas化’undthatseniormanagerswhoimagined

whatitwouldbeliketoseetheirorganizationsachievetheirvisiononedayinthe uture

developedvisionswithgreaterimagery,withoutweakeningotheraspectssuchasachiev‐

ability,speci賃city,andvalues,

c0nSiderthefollowingSampleofViSi0nStatementS.
VVith

 

referencetothe

 

criteria

 

shown

 

in

 

table

 

6.4,
which ofthesestatementsarein yourjudgment

effective,and whicharenot?BasedontheirVision

statements,forwhichofthesecompanieswould

you

wanttowork?VVhosevls-onswouldturnyouaway?

VVhy?

 

How

 

do

 

you

 

explainyour

 

preferences

 

and

diS1ikesWithregardtothesevisions?

A′「bnb

APP/e

COC0‐Co/o

Belonganywhere.

VVebelievethatweareontheface

oftheearthtomakegreatproducts

andtharsnotchanging.

VVe

 

bring

 

the world’sbreathtaking
diversityintocinematicfocus,tell-

ing

 

stories

 

thatare

 

revealing

 

and

lnsplrーng.

lnspiringeachothertobethebest

we

 

can

 

be

 

by providing

 

 

great

p-acetowork.

下o

 

be

 

one

 

of

the World’s

 

leading

producers

 

and

 

providers

 

ofenter-

tainmentandinformation.

ourvisionforcommerceisonethat

is

 

enabled

 

bypeop-e,powered

 

by
techno-ogy,andopentoeveryone.

下o

 

provide

 

access

 

to

 

the World’s

informationinoneclick.

Srorbucks

しMQ′mqrr

Becomingthebestglobalentertain-

mentdistributionservice.Licenslng

entertainment

content

 

around

 

the

wor-d,creating markets

 

that

 

are

accessibletofi-m makersandhelp-

ing

 

content

 

creators

 

around

 

the

worldtofindag-obalaudience.

下obring

 

inspirationand

 

innovation

toeveryathleteintheworld.

VVe

 

envlslon

 

a cultural

 

platform

where

 

professionaー creators

 

can

breakfree

 

oftheir

 

medium’s

 

con-

straints

 

and where

 

everyone

 

can

enjoyanimmersiveartisticexper--

encethatenablesustoempathize

witheachotherandtofeelpartofa

greaterwhole,

下oestablishStarbucksasthepre-

mierpurveyorofthefinestcoffee

inthe world While maintainingour

uncompromlslng principles

 

While

wegrow.

Bethedestinationforcustomersto

save

 

money,no matter

 

how

 

they

Wanttoshop.

From MissionStatementAcademy.2019.https://

mission‐statement.com.

Vision and MarketStrategy
Somecommentatorsarguethat,tocreatecompetitiveadvantage,anorganization

’svision

andstrategy mustbeunconventional,perhaps

 

even counterintuitive,and mustalso be
distinct丘omthoseofothercomPanies.Visionshavebothe×ternalandinternaldimen-

sions.Theexternaldimensionconcernshow marketswork,whatdrivescustomers,com‐

petitors,industrydynamics,and macroeconomictrends.Aswesawinchapter5,thetoy

manu魚cturingco]mPany M【atteltraditionallyregardeditscorebusinessassellingtoysthat

were madeinitsown 危ctories.Fallingsalesandthebehaviorofcompetitors,however,
encouragedM[atteltooutsourceproductionanddevelopintoamediabusiness.Mattelhas

188

 

chapter6

 

P”′poseの7dyお′。〃

            

          

‐adtodeVe1opneWinterna1capabi1itiestorea1iZethisnew VISIon,Customerscanexpect

           

tosee moviesbasedolIM[attelbrandssuchasBarbie,HotVVheels,AI1nericanGirl,M[agic

        

8‐Ball,and MaiorMattMasonappearoncinemascreensinthe2020s(Lashinsky,2019),

              

Having a weローspecifiedexternalvisionhelpstoidentifyhowthecompany willgrow

           

andcompete.onlythencanallinternalvisionbedeveloped,pointingtothecapabilities

           

thatneedtobeacquiredtocompete,andalsoto whattheorganizationseekstobecome,

             

Externalandinternaldimensionsofthevisionthushavetobealigned,

WithanarratiVeorSto~thatdearlyanicuーateSthe
“bigpicture“--whychangeisimponantandhowit

wilー

 

positivelyaffectthe

 

organization

 

ーong‐term.
Thisshouldse~easthefoundationforhowyou

communicateaboutthechangemovingforward.
(Galbraith,2018,p.3)

lnspirepeoplebypresentingacompe-lingvlsーon

forthefuture.Duringtimesofuncertainty,peopーe

experiencingchangeWantaclearviewofthepath

ahead.lt’s

 

importantto

 

share Whatyou

 

know--

includingwhat’schanging,When,andhow.Butfor

mostchangeinitiatives,itisalso

 

he-pfultostart

鱈圏璽霞圏璽

 

How VisionsAre Developed

How arevlslonsdeveloped?v▽ewillconsiderthreeanswerstothisquestion,exploring

approachesto”cra賃ing
’’avision,thekindsofquestionsthatcanhelptodevelopavision,

andconnectingthevisiontotheorganization
’s”innervoice.

Craftingthe Vision

LawrenceHolppand MichaeIKelly(1988,p.48)arguethatcra賃ingavisionis“alittle

likedancingwitha500‐poundgorilla.lttakesalittlewhileto getthesteps down,but

oncethedanceisover,youk‐ロowyou
’vereallyaccomーplishedsomething.

” Therearedif

免rentapProaches(ordances)tocra賃ing orcreating a vision,andsomeofthese are

outlinedintable6.5(basedon aconceptsimilartothe“leadershipstylescontinuum,

discussedinchapterlo,tablelo.7),

TABLE6.5

    

Approach

  

漁′hat-tMeans

              

Used汎′hen
APProachesto

    

下eー.

     

Chiefexecut-vecreatesthevーs1on lnvolvementisnotseenasVision‐Crafting

          

    

   

 

                   

important,

   

 

                    

andgivesittostaff.

              

SeH

      

Chiefexecutivehasavisionthathe

  

Chiefexecutiveisattractedtothe

                       

orshewantsstafftoaccept,

      

vlslonandwantsotherstoadoptit.

             

下est

      

Chiefexecutiveseeksfeedbackon

  

Chiefexecutivewantstoseewhich

                       

ideasaboutavision,

           

aspectsofthevisionfindsupport,

             

Consult

   

ChiefexecutiVeseeksthe

creative

   

Chiefexecutiveneedshelpto

                    

inputofstaff,Withinsetparameters,

 

developtheVision.

             

Co‐create

  

Chiefexecutiveandstaffcreatea

   

Chiefexecutivewantstoidentify

                      

sharedvision.

               

sharedvisionsthroughoutthe

      

                 

                          

organization,

Chapter6

 

Aノ′poseの7d““o′7

 

189

    

TABLE6.6

      

Deetzeta-.(2ooo)

    

Davidson(2004)

     

BelgardandRayner(2004)

    

Guidelines節r

    

structuri加ーgthe

   

  

Useaqualifiedfacilitato[

   

Developtrialvision

     

Leadershipteamdefines

    

VisionProcess:

                         

statements.

         

thetimeーine.

                           

produced.

                

  

Takeactionquicklyto

               

      

Getfeedbackfrom

across

                      

capitalizeonenthusiasm;

                    

theorganization.

19O

 

ChaPter6

 

P”′Pose”′〆 “s′○′7

           

newfrontlineteam visionthatcan‐be“cascadeduP
“throughtheorganization,Ashkenas

       

and Manville(2019,P.3)alsonote,
”Eachofthese[modesofinvolvementinvision‐cra食-

       

ing] can ProPelyour Pro危ssionaldeveloPment,leadingto biggerresPonsibilitiesover

           

time.
“Aninclusiveapproachtovision‐cra]Ringcanhelptoensure”ownership

“oftheend

       

result.Atesetal,(2019)arguethatthepotentiallypositiveimpactofvisionaryleadership

           

canbelostwhen middle managersarenotalignedwiththetop managementvisionand

            

thatthislackofalignmentcancausestrategicchangee鯨ortstobreakdownor魚il.

Askingthe Right Questions

Discussionofdifferentdegreesofinvo1vementinthe deve1op]mentofan organization
,s

visiondonotd口ectlyaddressthequestionofhowtodevelopthesubstance

ofthevision

itself,Holppand Ke且y(1988)identi肯threedi爺erentapproachesandsetsofquestions

throughwhichvision maybedeveloped,Theylabeltheseapproaches溺れ‘!Z!ve,αm卿Zcq/,
andわe′に左mqr幻刀g.

  

TheZ′7れ腐れ′eapproachreliesontheuseofimaginationandimagerytoencouragesta茸

toparticipateinvision development, Managersareaskedtoimaginedoingthei1jobsin

sucha waythattheyreallyachieve whatthey wantfrom themselvesand 丘omtheother

peoplewithwhomthey work:

  

First,theyareaskedtolistuptotenthingsthattheywanttoachievepersonallyand

  

Pro定ssionally,andthentoprioritizethese,恥cusingonthetoptwoorthree.

  

Second,they化)cusontheircurrentsituationasawaytoidentifythetension

between

  

theircurrentlivede×periencesandtheirdesiredimage.

 

Third,theyareprovidedwithsupporttohelpidentiル andimplementstructuredaction

  

plansto worktowardachievingtheirvision,

 

Them7のノ加須approachseesvlslonsasde6‐nedinrelationtoorganizationalordepart‐

mentalmissionsandroles.Visionisthusrelatedtopurposeand化)cusesonthe賃)1lowing

questions:

▽vhoisservedbytheorgani

zation?

VVhatdoestheorganizationdo?

Vvheredoestheorganizationplace mostofitse”ヨorts?

VVhydoestheorganization食)cusonparticularworkandgoals?

How doestheorganization operationalizetheseeがorts?

 

Theaim ofthese questionsistoguidethe organization as

 

a Whole,and 加ーdividual

departments,丘omthecurrentsituationtoadesiredfuturestate,

  

Theらのに初?mr殻′ばapproachbasesthevisionontheactionsandstandardsoftheorga-

nization’stoughestcompetitors.Thisinvolvesasldng:

・ ▽vhatdoourcompetitorsdowen?

・ Howcanwesurpassthis?

・ VVhatquantitativeandqualitative measureswouldindicatethatwehadachievedthis?

・ VVhatwillitbelike,andhow willit発el,whenthosestandardshavebeenachieved?

    

                                       

chapter6

 

Pmposeq〃d“sわ″ 19・

 

ThebenchmarldLngaPProachismoree×ternally 化)cused,ComPared withtheintuitive
andanalyticalapproaches,whichhaveaninternal危cus.HerearesomeoftheProblems
withtheseapproaches:

・ TheintuitiveaPProach,which賞)1lowsan organization developmentPersPective,may

  

producePersonalvisionsthatarenotconnectedtothecorebusinessoftheorganiza-

  

tionandtocurrentoranticipatedindustrytrends.
・ TheanalyticalaPProachservesmoretoalignthevisiontothe missionoftheorgani‐

  

zationbutPayslessattentiontothevaluesandguidinglogicsoftheorganization.By

 

aligningtootightlywithmission,theanalyticalapproach mayneglecttheinspirational

  

elementofvisions.

・ ThebenchmarldLngapproach assumesthattheorganization’s 範turewillbelinkedto

 

currentcompetitors.However,itmaybe morevaluabletoidenti趣 whowillbethenew

  

competitorsinthefuture,esPecially where an organization and asectorare 魚cing

  

translt)rmationalchange.

“Bread and Salt’’:Connectingtothe organization’s”lnnerVbice”

RobertQuinn(1996,p.197)makesaninterestingcontributiontotheProcessofidenti‐
6〆ingchangevlslons.Hepoints outthat,in manyorganizations,people wantto kllow
whatthevisionisandlooktothechiefexecutiveto provideit.Parado樽ically,however,
wherevlslonstatementsareavailable,suchasoncorporatebusinesscards,thesearelikely
toberf考ectedasbeingin nameonly;theyarenotwhatpeopleare“winingtodie化)r.

Hearguesthatdevelopinga vision to guide

 

organizationalactions hasto gobeyond
suPer賃cialstatementsand”Con杜ontthelackofintegritythateXistsinthesystem,

“an
exercise化)rwhich発w managersarewellequipped.

  

Toillustratethisview,hetellsthestoryofasPeech givenbyハイ【ahatmaGandhiata

politicalconventioninlndia.VVhenherosetosPeak,manyintheaudiencealsorose,le貴
theirseats,andPaidlittleattentionto him. However,ashespoke about whatlndians
reallycaredabout--notpolitics,butbreadandsalt-theaudiencesatdownagainandlis‐
tened.His message wasunusual:”Thissmall,unassuming manhadjourneyedthrough
theirheartland and capturedtheessenceoflndia.He wasvocalizingitin a waythey
could角elandunderstand.Sucharticulationisoftenattheheartofradical,deepchange

(Quinn,1996,p,199).ForQuinn,itisthisabilityto賃ndtheorganizatiods“breadand

salt“that makesav・slon appealing,passionate,andbeyondthesuperficial.Thissearch

貴)rthe”innervoice’oftheorganizationisnecessary,todevelopvlslonsthatresonateand

narrowthegap between“talkand walk.
”Such“bread‐and-salt”visionsareachievedina

circular mannerinvolvingabottom-uPandtop‐downdialoguetoreachthe“innervoice“

oftheorganization.

 

Adoptingasimilarposition,Rogers(2007,p.229)maintainsthat“visionisasmuch
aboutinsightas昼lrsight.

“Visionsneedto connectwithPeoP1e
’sdesires, 花elings,and

ambitions,as we1.aswiththeorganization’sintentions. Resonating withthe 勿云e′preだr
imageofchange management,thisimpliesthatvisionsareimPortantinencouragingthe
membersofan organizationto develop andexP1ore

”neW waysofseeing,
“togain 丑esh

insights,makenew connections,andtobebetterpreparedto work withthechallenges
thatanew visionislikelytobring,

192

 

Chapter6

 

ル′′poseの7d”なめ〃

国璽園 W′hy VisionSFaiI

Visionscan鏡ilあranumberofreasons.Forexample,thiscanhappenwhenavlslon‐ls:

 

 

bo 切に前c.Failsto appreciatetheinabilityto controlchange,andthe degreeof

 

uncertaintyo貴enassociatedWithoutcomes

 

7ZOOCのれ【フ定工,Difficulttounderstand

 

7bo mg”e,FailstoactasalandmarktowardWhichchangeactionsaredirected

 

ヱねαdeの!のe‘onlypartiallyaddressesthepresentingproblem

・ “.だ/eyの”,C1earpicture,notfirmlyattachedtothe

business

. β/・z″red.NoclearPictureoftheFuture

. 防7reのZSZZC.PerceivedasnotachieVab1e

・ Areαrl′Zew 〃7Zrroz PicturesthePast,extraPolatedintothefuture

 

 

loddJick(2001,p.36)addsthatavisionislikelyto態ilwhenleaderssPend9opercent

oftheirtimearticulatingit(butnotnecessarilyinclearlyunderstoodterms)andonly

lopercentoftheirtimeimplementingit.Table6,7

 

suggests otherreasons whyvisions

鏡il.Thebox”ALackofSharedVision“tellsashortstoryabouttheabsenceofashared

vision.Vi′ewillnowconsidertwofurtherreasons食)rvision魚ilure:inabilitytoadaptover

time,andthePresenceofcompetingvlslons.

ThechiefexecutiveofProcter&Gamble(P&G),A1an

Lafley,is

 

reflecting

 

on

 

his

 

five

 

years

 

ofleading

change

 

insidethe

 

company.one

 

ofhis

 

key

 

com-

mentsisthathefounditimportanttoprovidemore

thanjusta

 

brieflystated vision,because people

respondedbettertospecifics:

Soifl’dstoppedat”VVe’regoingtorefocusonthe

company’scorebusinesses,
“thatwouldn’thave

beengoodenough.Thecorebusinessesareone,
two,three,four.Fabriccare,babycare,feminine

care,andhaircare.Andthenyougetquestions:
”VVell,1

’minhomecare.lsthatacorebusiness?”

“No.
””VVhatdoesithavetodotobecomeacore

business?“

 

”lt

 

has

 

to

 

be

 

a 9lobal

 

ーeader

 

in

 

its

Fai1ureto Adapt

SomevlslonsstandthetestoftimeandremainapplicableandadaPtableto new situa‐

tionsandenvironments.others,however,needtobeoverhauledtoremainrelevant,This

  

VVhydidthisextradetail

 

help?Forl‐afley,there

weretwofactors,onewasthesizeanddiversityof

thep&G workforce-100,00opeoplefromoverloo

cultures.Thesecondwasthat,formanagerswithso

muchgoingonintheirbusinesses,theproVIS-onof

moredetailontheimplicationsofthevisionhe-ped

themtofocusonwhatwasneededtoimplementit

(GuptaandWendler,2005,p.3),

industry,lthasto

 

havethe

 

beststructural

 

eco‐

nomics

 

in

 

its

 

industry.1thasto

 

beab-etogrow

consistentlyatacertainrate.lthastobeableto

deliveracertaincashflowreturnoninvestment.

So

 

then

 

business

 

leaders understand

 

what

 

it

takestobecomeacorebusiness.

Chapter6

 

Pz”po肥α′7メ“s′0“

 

193

TABLE6.7
VVI1yVisionsFail

Source:Basedon
Lipton(1996,
pp.89‐91).

VisionsFai-VVhen...

    

Because.”

rhewo政′sd′”;erent存om

  

VVhenmanagersdonotmatchtheirwordswithactions,staff
でhero秋,

            

memberstreatthevisionasanemPtyslogan.

 

Theyoreそreoredosそれe

   

TheexPectationswiーlbeunreaーistic,andvisionsarenot

 

”わ0/ygro′!ぞ

          

magicsolutions.

丁力eyore打orConnecそedro

 

Visionsneedtorecognizecurrentobstaclesiftheyareto
t力epresenf.

          

bebelievableandseenasachievabーe・

Theyorefoodbsrrocもor

  

Visionsmustbeidealistic,reaーistic,andtangible.
rooco“Crere.

Deve/opmlentdoesnot

    

ltisoftentheprocessaswellasthefinalvisionthathelpsto
′nvo/veocreo”veProcess. securetheorganization’sfuture.

Port′cの0”on′s″m′red.

  

Consensusmustbebuiltaroundthevision,whichhastobe

                      

diffusedthroughouttheorganization.

Peop/eoreco」mp/ocent.

  

Visionsthatareprojectedtoofarintothefuturearenot

                       

seenasurgent.

JohnSymons{2006)teー-sthefollowin9humorous

story:

Themaninthehotairba”oonwaslost.Descend-
ing

 

sufficiently

 

he

 

shouted

 

to

 

a walker

 

on

 

the

groundaskingwherehewas,
“ouare30feetup

intheair,

was

 

herimmediateresponse

 

before

shewalkedaway.

 

Asked

 

subsequently

 

byacompanionto

 

plainthisunhelpfulbehaviorshesaid:”Hewasa
typicaーmanager,Hedidn’tknowwherehewas,or
howtogettowherehewantedtogowithoutthe

help

 

ofthose

 

underneath

 

him.
”Somewhat

 

mis-

chievouslyshe

 

added,●
”W′hyshou-d

 

 

do

 

more
than

 

necessary

 

to

 

help someone

 

who

 

got

 

to

wherehewasbyhotairanddidnotte=mewhere
hewasplanningtogo?”

ASJohnsymonscomments:

Sheobvious-ydidnotknoworsharetheballoon-
ist’svision,Thelessonformanagersiscーear.As

well

 

asenthusingthoseunderneath,theleader

needstocommunicatewhereheorsheisinrela‐
tionto

achievingthevision.

situation

 

is

 

illustrated

 

bytheinvestigation byL1oyd Harris

 

and Emmanuel

 

ogbonna

(1999)intotwo medium‐sized UK‐retailcompaniesandtheimpactofthe 危unders’

vlslonsonstrategicchange.lnbothcases,thecomーPany化’underestablishedthevision

wellover

 

looyearsagoandthere wasevidenceofanescalationofcommitmenttothe
visionbysubsequent management,ln onecompany,thevision waspaternalistic(com‐

mitmenttowardsta甘)and あcusedonprudentgromh.Thisledtoastrongあcusonsales

andprofitabilityineach new storelocation.Thesecharacteristics werestillpresentin
the

 

current management

 

ofthe

 

company. The vision

 

itself was

 

seen

 

as

 

fleゴロible

 

and

responsive

 

to

 

the

 

prevailing

 

environmental

 

conditions

 

花lcing the

 

comーpany, The

194

 

ChaPter6

 

A″Posed′7d粋瀞o′7

        

researcherslabelthe 危under’svisioninthiscaseasProvidinga“strategicdividenず 危r

        

subsequent management,

          

Bycontrast,intheothercompany,the 危under’svision wasto haveastoreinevery

        

towninaParticularregion,A second asPectofthisvisionconcerned 魚milycontrolof

        

the company,Theresearchers

 

arguethatthisoriginalvision continuedto drivesenlor

        

management.However,incontrasttothefi1stcomPany,thisvisionservedasa“strategic

        

hangover.
” The closed nature

 

ofthe visionledsuccessive managementteamsto

make

         

decisionsthatwereoutofstep withchangesintheenvironmentalconditions魚cingthe

         

sector,suchasthe movementoflargeretailstoresintotheregionandashi貴infocusof

         

such

 

storesfrom priceto

 

quality and

 

service, As

 

aresult,the

 

comPany almost 魚ced

        

financialruinontwoseparateoccasions,lnrelationtosubsequentstrategicchangeactions

        

takenbymanagementinthesetwocompanies,theauthorsarguethat“whethertheoriginaI

        

Vis・onofthe あunderresultsinalegacyorahangoverisclearlydependentontheoriginal

              

fle〆ibility ofthe strategy and the later environmental aPpropriateness
” (Harris and

           

ogbonna,1999,p.340),

Presence ofCompetin9 Visions

Visions mayalso 態ildueto what Kanteretal.(1992)call“visioncollisions,
” where

multiP1evisionsconf1ictwitheachother.Thishappens,おorexamp1e,whenthevisionis

cra貴edbystrategistswhoareconvincedoftheneed あrchange,butwherethissenseof

urgencyisnotsharedbythose who willimplementorbea節ectedbythechange(who

maystillbetryingtoembedpreviouschanges).Visioncollisionscan also occur Where

thereisagap betweenthevisionsofmanagementandstakeholders.lnthemid‐1980s,
thevisionofNike,thesportswearcompany,Wastomakeath1eticFootwear.However,the

companyあundthatadifferentmarketsegmentwasbuyingtheirshoes;notathletes,but

people

 

who

 

were wearing Nike

 

trainers

 

instead

 

ofcasual

 

shoes. Nikerespondedby
introducingitsownbrandofcasualshoes,This

 

strategy 魚iledbecause Nikehadnot

understoodthatcustomerswerebuyingexPensive
“overengineeredsneakers”becausethey

aPpealedtotheirimage,ln other words,thecomPany
’svision wasoutofstep withits

customers’visionofNike.M[ultipleandconflictingvisionscanalsoarisewithcompany

mergers. Colin Mitchell(2002),forexample,citesthe 魚ilurein2000 ofthe merger

between

 

Deutsche

 

Bank and DresdnerBank,lnthis

 

merger,there was

 

a “魚ilure

 

of

managementtopersuade Deutsche’sinvestmentbankersofthevision貴)rhowthenewly

mergedcomPany wouldcompete,△αanykeyemployeesleg〔,andthethreatofmasswalk

out賃)rced Deutschetoabandonthedeala賃erconsiderabledamagetothesharePrice

ofbothco・][・Panies”(p.104).

鯉圃瞳圃圏

 

Linking Visionto Change:Three DebateS

         

1nthissection,weexplorethreedebatesconcerningthe蹴lksbetweenvislonandorgani-

             

zationalchange.First,weaskifvisionisadriverofchange,orifvisionemergesthjFough

           

thechangeprocess,Second,weask whethervisionhelpsorhinderschange.Third,We

           

assesswhethervisionisbetterattributedtoheroic,charismaticleaders,orisbetterunder‐

         

stoodasanorganizationalattribute,

Chapter6

 

Pmp。肥 の7d”おめ″ 195

Debate one.‐Vision

during Change?

    

 

     

 

       

Driving Change orEmerging

Thechange managementaPProachesand貴÷ameworksdescribedinchaPterlogivevlslon

aprominentroleinunderpinningandimplementingorganizationalchange.

ForKanteretal.(1992),establishingavisionisthefirststeptowardchange. Without

avlslon,changes mayseem arbitraryand unnecessary.Vision providesclarityabout

thegoalsofchange,avoidingtheperceptionthatthisisjustanothercost‐cuttingexer

cise.Thevisioncan motivatesta賃toembracechange,engagingin whatmayseemto
bedauntingorriskyactions.

ForPendleburyetal.(1998),vision determinesthescoPe,depth,andtime 貢ame
ofchange,andtheareasthatwillbeanコected.Havingavlslonatthestartofchange
isneededforbothtrans免rmationalchange(outliningthebroaderstrategicintent

to whichallactionsaredirected)andincrementaloradaptivechange(wherethe

vlslon

 

can

 

be

 

more

 

specific

 

in

 

terms

 

of

 

specifying change

 

objectives

 

andvlslon

 

can

  

e more

 

specllc

 

ln

procedures).

  

Theneed orvision atthestartofchangeisalsoembeddedinthestrategylitera‐

ture,wherethetermsZFQ肥厚c/“定期iso賃en usedtorepresentvision.Thisisusually

associatedwiththeworkofGary HamelandC.K.Prahalad(1989,p.4),whoargue

that“strategicintentenvlslonsadesiredleadershipposition and establishesthecri‐

teriontheorganizationwillusetochartitsprogress,
“Theypointto Komatsu’s“Encir-

cle

 

Caterpillar
” and

 

Canon’s “Beat

 

Xerox” as

 

vlslonary

 

statements that

 

capture

strategicintent.Thestrategicintentbehindsuchstatementswaslongterm andencom‐

passedanumberofdifferentchangeprogramsandactionsovertheshortandmedium
termsthat weredesignedto worktowardthelonger‐term vlslon.Thestrategicintent

expressedthedesiredendresultwithoutspecifyingorprescribingthenecessarysteps
Forachievingit.

騎sわ〃Emergesd”“〃g C乃α〃ge

AJthoughimportant,itmaynotbepossibletoarticulateaclearvlslonatanearlystage

duringtransformationalordiscontinuouschange.Robertshaw(1995)arguesthatorga‐
nizationalstructuresand managementprocessesmayrequirefundamentalchange.ltmay
notbepossibletodeveloPavlslon untila貸ertheprocesshasbeguntoun範ldbecause

therelevantinあrmation maynotbeavailableinthecurrentconfiguration (customer

expectations,competition).ln other words,discontinuouschange hasto beunder way
to makethatin貴)rmationavailabletoin貴)rmthedevelopmentofvision.Those whoare

leadingthe

 

change

 

are

 

surroundedbythe presenting problems

 

and are

 

ableto make

real‐timeadjustmentsinthecontextoftheresultsoftheirongoinge掻orts,Quinn(1996,
p.83)describesthisas“buildingthebridgeasyou walkit.

  

ls”thevisionthing
”overratedintermsofdrivingchange?ltispossibletoarguethat

eがectivebusinessplanningleadstosuccessfulchange,andnotvision,orvlslonaryleaders・
ls “vision rhetoric” usedjustto

 

make

 

management decisions

 

appear to be

 

more

acceptable?

198

 

ChaPter6

 

Pmz7osed′7d幹瀞o′7

         

ForLissackandRoos(2001),theConcePtofVisionis上江口itedbyotherassumPtions,one

        

assumptionisthatorganizationalboundariesarewelldefined:staぜ,customers,suppliers.ln

         

aworldoffuzzyorganizationalnetworks,thisassumptionisquestionable,Asecondassump-

        

tionisthattheidentityoftheorganizationisfixed,withthevisionbuiltaroundthatidentity,

        

頓Zeth血kofLego,免rexample,asatoycompany. However,corporateidentity一Whatthe

         

organizationdoes-isconstantlychanging;aswesawinchapter5,Legoisalsonowanonline

       

gamescompany.Lissack and Roos(2001,p.61)Pre発rtheterm “coherencご to vision,

         

Coherenceinvolves,
“actingin a marulerconsistentwithwhoyou aregivenyourpresent

         

spotinthebusinesslandscape.
” APinterestingargument,butitisuldikelythattheterm

         

のゐere′?α,emphasizingdebatesaroundboundariesandorganizationalidentity,winreplace

         

theconceptofvision,whichisdeeplyembeddedinchange managementthi血盟bog.

          

How doesvisionimpactindividualratherthan organizationalidentity,and canthis

        

propelorimpedechange?Thisissuehasgenerateddebate.Landauetal.(2006)notethat

        

sta賃 mayidentiル strongly withanorganization
’soriginalvisionand withtheunderlying

        

be口e危 and assumptions.However,when an attemptismadetoi可ectanew vlslon,this

            

islikelytoberesistedifitdisruptsindividualimagesandselfde賃nitions,Thenew vlslon

            

wil.lthereForehinderchange.Thisproblem canbeaddressedifitispossibleto ensure

        

thatnew o蝉ectivesand goalsremain consistentwiththevaluesandbeliefsthatunder

             

pinnedtheoriginalvision.

         

je鐙eyFordand Winiam Pasmore(2006)questionthisposition あrtworeasons,First,

            

itisnotclearthatvision doesd江ectlyal節ectindividualidentity量)rm無gprocesses.Thisis

             

anemp立icalquestionthatneedstobee×am超edandislikelytovaryacrossorgal雲izations.

            

Second,evenifweacceptthatthereisadirectrelationshipbetween血dividualidentityand

           

vision,theproblemlieswithsta甘 memberswhoaredeeP1ycommittedtoaneXistingidentity,

        

whichtheyarereluctanttochange,despitetheneedあranewvision(andperhaps,therefbre,

        

anewidentity)-evenifthenew visionisnecessarytosecurethe orga匝zation’ssurvival.

             

Theynote,
”Peopleshouldbeentitledtotheiridentities,butatthesal工let立ne,organizations

        

doneedpeoplewhoarecommittedtoaviable,sustainablevisiontosurvive“(p,176),This

          

argumentremmdsusthatchanges m vision maychallengeindividualidentities,thereby

             

producmgresistancetochange.VVhendevelopinganewvision,therelk)re,itisi1nrportantto

             

assess,first, whetherthiswinenable ordisableidentity-貴)rlilingprocesses,andsecond,

             

whetherthiswinencourageordiscouragethoseaがectedtobecomeinvo1vedinthe

change,

Debate Three.-Vision:An Attribute of Heroic Leaders

or Heroic organizations?

                       

 

      

somecommentatorsarguethatsuccessfulorganizationa1changedependsoneがective1ead-

ership.For Nadlerandshaw(1995,p.219),
“heroicleaders”energizeandsupporttheir

角nowersand providethem withavisionthat“
providesavehicle角rpeopleto develop

com1P亘tlrlent,acommongoalaroundwhichpeoplecanrally,andaway貴)rpeopleto熊el

successful.
“Aswehavealreadynoted,thevision hastobeclear,compening,chanengiねg,

andcredible,butitmustalsobereflectedintheexpressionsandactionsoftheleaderwho

isarticulatingit,Nadler(1998,p.276)pointstovisionaryleaderssuchasJamieHoughton

attheU,S.technologycompanyCormngwhopainted
“anengrossmgpictureofaculture

inwhich Corningwouldbeoneofthemostcompetent,profitable,andrespectedcorpora‐

tions釦theent鱈eworld.
”日ealsoidenti負esscottMcNealyofSun Microsystems(nowpart

              

    

                                            

Chapter6 Pmposeの?〆″童sわ″

 

199

           

oforacle)asenvision止ロg“aninあrmationworldwherePeoplewouldbefteetochoose丘om‐

                  

arangeofvendorsratherthan heldCaptivebyasingle,au‐powerFul mega-corporation.

                  

lronically,someofthosewhoarecitedasvlslonaryleadersdonotseethemselvesasvlslon‐

                  

aryorheroicandhavechallengedthesignifiCanCeofvision:

                 

RoberZ互班o“,whenhewasCEO0fChrysler,downP1ayedvisionin 魚vorofmeasurable

                    

short‐term results.

                    

五万″ Gα解s,oneoftheFoundersofみなicroso賃,once declaredthat“Being Vis・onaryls

            

trivial.
”(Lipton,1996,P,86)

                    

Nevertheless,thoseleadersareo賃enPraised食)rarticulatingclear,appealing,Challenging

                  

imagesofthefutureoftheirorganizations-thehallmarksofe]mectivev・slons.

            

GardnerandAvoロo(1998)arguethate爺ectiveCharismatic,visionaryleadersCreate”ide止

                  

tity節コages
”thatarevaluedanddesi崖redbyothers,宜lcorporatingtrustworth辻less,Credib廷ity,

                

morauty,血=novativeness,esteem,andPower.Draw血gon adramaturgicaIPersPective,they

           

arguethatCharismaticleadersenact(orper金rm)the壮visionsthrough 短urprocesses:

                

1, 万mmZ“g,Theartofmanaging meaning,influencingotherstoaccepttheleader’sinter-

                    

Pretationofthevision,bystressingitsimportance,andaligningitwiththeirvalues

                

2.scrj駆動g.TheProcessofCoordinatingandintegrating morespecificsetsofideasand

                    

actionsincluding:

                     

・ castingoftheapPropriatekeyroles

                    

・ dialogue,usingvariousrhetoricaldevices,suchasmetaphorsandstories,toincrease

                    

theappealofthe message

                     

・ providingd立ection,usingverbalandnonverbalbehaviorandemotionaldisplays

                

3.Smg粥g.Theselectionofsymbols,artifacts,proPs,andsettingstorein貴)rcethevision

           

4. ル堺ormZ〃g.Enactingthevisionbypersonallydemonstratingthebehaviorsrequiredto

                    

achievethevision

                  

ltisimportanttonotethat,althoughhavingavlslon・sconsideredby manyCommen‐

                

tatorstobeaprerequisite食)rsuccessfuIChangeleadership,othersdisagree.Vision may

                 

beanecessaryComponentofinsPirationalleadership,butitmaynotbesu”Ficient.Robert

           

Go掻eeand GarethJones(2000)arguethat,to complementenergy and vision,other

                  

qualitiesarenecessaryincluding:

                  

・ revealingpersonalweaknessesto貢)1lowerstogaintheirtrust

                  

・ sensinghowthingsareintheorganizationandthewiderenvironment,Pic]bLngupand

                   

interpretingsubtlecuesandsignals

                 

・ showing
“tough emPathy,


Passionate,Caring,butrealistic, 節Cusing on whatothers

                 

needratherthan whattheywant

                

・ daringtobedifョヨerent,signallingand maintainingtheiruniqueness,while maintaining

                   

socialdistance

                    

lthasalsobeenarguedthatvisionaryleadersareneededataneverydaylevelthroughout

           

theorganization,andnotjustatthetop.SuchindividualsProvidewhatRogers(2007)Cans

                

“supervision,
”usinginteractions,conversations,androlemodellingtodemonstrate:

ReなPedn’e.ConcerningtheChallenges魚cingtheorganization

′’“′pose,BothPersonalandorganizational

200

 

Chapter6

 

P班posed′7d“s′。′7

Processes・Respond moree”ョectivelytocustomers

βossz虜/!rZes.Challengecurrentconstraints

bre′”Zα/.Concerningpersonalcontributions

′セsszo〃,Channelenergiesin meaningfuIWays

  

lnthisperspective,therelbre,to maintainengagementand motivation,ProvidingV1slon

mーustbeaday‐to‐dayactivityinvolving manyleadersacrosstheorganization,andnotan

occasionalprocessledbyasingleseniorfigureorasmalltopteam,

巧ぶ卿2左α〃血筋ら”だ け嵐erのco増加Zzqrゎm

CollinsandPorras(2005)arguethatvisionaryleadersarenotnecessarytocreatevisionary

companies,claimingthattheroleofcharismainsettingvision hasbeen exaggerated.A

charismaticleadermayevenbeanimpedimenttothecreationofavisionaryorganization;

sustainedorganizationale掻ectivenessdependsonembeddedvisions,values,andideologies,

ratherthan on pronouncements丘om oneseniorfigure,Theleader’sroleisto actasa

catalyst,稼cilitatingthedevelopmentof,andcommitmentto,thevision,Thisisaprocess

thatcanbeachievedthrough avarietyofleadershipand managementstyles,ltismore

inlportanttocreateanorganizationwithavisionthantohaveacharismaticchiefe×ecutive

withapersonalvision,

 

lnthisperspective,visionincorporatescoreideology,whichisunchanging,anddefines

whattheorganizationstandsあrandwhyitexists,Anenvisionedfutureiswhattheorga-

nization aspiresto

 

and changestoward overtime.ldeologycomprisescorevalues

 

and

core purpose, Core values

 

aredurableguidingprinciples:”the HP 訳/ay,
”釈ZaltDisney

Company
’s”imaginationand wholesomeness,

”Procter& Gamble’s“
productexcellence,

andNordstro鯖s“customerservice.
”CollinsandPorras(2005)notethatmostcompanies

haveonlythreetofivesharedcorevalues,Corepurposeontheotherhanddefinesthe

reason あrtheorganizatiodsexistence.

  

Corepurposeshouldbedurable(designedtolastacentury,perhaps)anddi鈷ers丘om

goalsand businessstrategies,which changeconstantlyovertime.Thepurpose maynot

change,butitshouldinspirechange,development,andprogress.Theenvisionedfuture,

incontrast,consistsof“BHAG‐s”-Big,Hairy,Audacious Goals,ordauntingchallenges

withspecifiedtimelinesthatcaninvolve:

・ Co′??′?7o〃e′?の?リノ/ogc.Phi五pM[orrisinthel950swantedto“krlocko甘RJRasthenum-

 

beronetobaccocompanyintheworld Nikeinthel960saimedto“crush Adidas,

・ Ro/emode//ogZc,Stanあrd Universityinthe

 

l940swantedtobecome“the Harvardof

 

the 帆Zest.

・ 方鶴er′?”/『〆”′?切々or′?7僻め“ わgZc,Thegoal貴)rGEinthel980swasto”become number

 

oneornumbertwoinevery marketweserve,andrevolutionizethiscompanytohave

 

the

 

strengths

 

ofabigcompany combined withtheleanness andagilityofa

 

small

  

company
“;Rockwellinl995wantedto”trans館ormthiscompany 丘o]m ade篤nsecon‐

  

tractorintothebestdiversifiedhigh-technologycompanyinthe world,

 

Afurthercomponentofenvisionedfuture,vividdescriptions,consistsofvibrant,pas‐

sionate,and engaging descriptionsofwhatitwiUbelikeinthefuture when goalsare

achieved. Envisioning

 

the

 

future

 

is

 

 

creative

 

process, engaging staff

 

across

 

the

organization,

Chapter6

 

月!′posed′7d騎瀞o′7

 

201

Coilinsand Porras(2005)arguethatcompletevi‐

sionshavethreecomponents:acoreideology(val-

uesandpurpose),anenvisionedfuture(big,haiw,

audaciousgoa-s),andvividdescriptions.Theyoffer
thefollowingexamp-efromthepharmaceuticalcom-

panyMerckinthel930s:

Coreldeology

Corev口′ues.Socialresponsibility
science‐basedinnovation

Purpose

opreserveandimprovehuman

  

TheworkofCollinsandPorrasoffersasensitive
treatment

 

ofthe

 

re-ationshipbetween

 

vlslon

 

and

change. Vision (which

 

they

 

also

 

call

 

”industry
foresighで)isbrokendownintocomponentparts,
some

 

ofwhich

 

remain

 

stableand

 

some

 

ofwhich

changeovertime.Manychangemode-sthatreferto
theneedforvisiontoguideorganizationaーchange
ーackthis

 

degree

 

ofsophistication.Vision

 

is

 

often

presented

 

as

 

something

 

that

 

guides

 

change,

handeddowntotheorganizationbythechiefexec‐

utiveandthetop‐managementteam,However,for
CollinsandPorras,vision(ascoreideoーogy)serves

as

 

an

 

enduring background

 

component,not

 

so

muchguidingchan9easreflectinghowchangewiーl

beachieved(byfoーlowingcorevalues,forexample).
ltistheenvisionedfutureofvisionthatofferscon-

cretechangedirection,concerningwhatshouldbe

changed,andhow,

EXERCISE

   

ourtaskistointerviewthreeemployees;theycanbeinthesameoradifferentorga-
6コ

        

nization.Askthemtothinkbacktoanorganizationaーchangethattheyexperiencedand

廓zeryzewz“g

  

toanswerthefolーowingquestions:

      

Rec夢/e“な

圏圏圃

1. VVeretheypresented withanorganizationalvisionforthischange?lfso:

VVhatwasthe

vision?

VVhateffectdidthishaveonthem?

VVeretheyinvolvedindevelopingthevision?

下o whatextentdidthevision motivatethemtoengageinthechange?

How centralwasthevisiontoimplementingthechange?

2.lfyourintervieweeswerenotgivenanorganizationalvisionforthischange,askthem:

VVouldavisionhavehelpedthemtounderstandandbecomeinvolvedinthechange?

            

Howimportantisvisiontoachievingorganizationalchange?

            

VVhenyou

 

have

 

completed yourinterviews,considerthe

 

responsesthatyou

 

have

          

documented.

VVhat

 

general

 

conclusions

 

emerge

 

regarding

 

the

 

relationship

 

between

          

Vislonandorganizationalchange?VVhathaveyoulearnedfromthisexercise?

202

 

chapter6

 

A〃poseの7d“s′。′7

EXERCISE

   

Consideryourowncurrentorganization,oranotherWith Whichyouarefamiliar,Which

6.2

        

couldbethelnstitution whereyouarestudying.Gotothe Websiteofthe MissionState‐

      

“α諺row刀

           

           

       

圏圏圃圏霊園

mentAcademy:https://mission‐statement.com.Note howtheyassessthe mlsslonand

vlsーonstatementsofleadingorganizations.Usingtheirstyleasatemplate,andreca=ing

thediscussionofeffective missionsandvisionsinthischapter,assessyourownchosen

organization’sapproachtotheseissues,

Does

 

your

 

organization’s

 

mission

 

statementset

 

out

 

a meaningful

 

and

 

challenging

purposethatWillexcite,attract,retain,and motivatestaff?

Does

 

your

 

organization’s

 

vision

 

statement

 

have

 

the

 

characteristicsidentified

 

in

table6.4?

Doyourorganization’s missionandvision

 

helptodrivechange,ornot?VVhy?

Areyourorganization’s missionand visionjusta“publicrelations”exerclse,orare

theyusedinpractice?How canyoutell?

                          

   

                                                                 

                                                                 

       

・ Whatchanges(ifany)Wouldyou maketoyourorganization’s missionandvision?

EXERCISE

   

Asyoureadthiscase,considerthefollowingquestions:

6.3

        

,. How wou-dyoudescribethe wayvision WasusedatMentorGraphics?

 

7了だ尺o定 げ

  

2.Did,itstrengthenorWeakenthecompany?How?VVhy?

巧諺oヵ所

    

3.ofthereasonsdiscussedinthischapterconcerningwhyvisionsfail,whichareapp-i-
ルをmor

     

3. ofthereasonsdiscussedinthischapterconcerningwhyvisionsfail,whichareapp-i-

 

cableto MentorGraphics?

4,VVhatisyourassessmentofthevisioncontentandtheprocessthrough Whichitwas

  

introduced

 

in

 

the

 

Mentor

 

Graphics

 

context?

 

VVhat

 

ーessons emerge

 

from

 

your

 

assessment?

5.BasedonwhathappenedatMentorGraphics,whataretheimplicationsforthethree

 

debatesdiscussed

 

inthischapter:Whethervisiondriveschangeoremergesduring

  

change;Whethervision

 

helpsorhinderschange;and whethervision

 

isanattribute

  

ofheroicleadersorheroicorganizations?

6, ofthesixchangeimagesoutlinedintable6,1,whichimagesofvisioncanbeapplied

 

tothiscasestudy?VVhat-essonsemergefromthis?

 

Foundedinl981,MentorGraphics(now Mentor,asiemensBusiness)isa U.S.elec‐

tronicdesignautomationbusiness.ltwasacquiredfor$4.5bi=ion bythe German mul-

tinationalsiemensin2017andhadrevenuesof$3bi=ionin2018.Accordingtocompany

president

 

Gerard

 

Langeler,the

 

role

 

ofvision

 

was

 

importantfrom

 

the beginnin9,The

companystarted withanunarticu1atedvisionto”Bui-dSomethingThatPeopleWilIBuy.

onthisbasis,theyspentseveralmonthsinterviewingpotentiaーcustomersanddesigning

acomputer‐aidedengineerin9Workstationproduct.Atthesametime,acompetitor,Daisy

Systems,Wasengaged

 

inthesametaskand,intheearlyyears,outcompeted Mentor

          

Graphics.Eventually,
“BeatDaisy”becamethenewvision,drivenbytheneedtosurvive

         

asabusiness.

            

Byl985 Mentor’srevenueswerehigherthan Daisy’s;theirvisionhadbeenrealized,

          

Thecompanycontinuedtogrow despitetherecession,butsufferedfromtypicaーgrowth

           

problems,including

 

decline

 

in

 

product

 

quality,and

 

prob-ems

 

ofinternal

 

company

                                                

ChaPter6

 

PmPosemm 騎瀞o′7

 

203

           

coordination.Stockvalue

 

also

 

suffered,and

 

 

numberofstaffapproached

 

Langeler

           

seekinganewvisionforthecompany.

            

Thenew v-slon wasdevelopedbasedon”SixBoxes,
”whichrepresentedthesixdif-

           

1nl989,yetanothervisionemerged:”Changingthe軌′aythe執′orldDesignsTogether.

          

ln

 

retrospect,Langeler

 

depictsthis

 

vision

 

as“thefinal

 

extension

 

ofvision

 

creepthat

          

began withSixBoxes,
“ltwasverygrandandhadlittletodowiththeactua-businesses

         

inwhich MentorGraphicsoperated,indudingthedevelopmentofitsnew8.0generation

          

ofsoftware.

           

Therea-ization,bythe earlyl99os,thatthe company’svision

 

detractedfrom What

         

the company wasactuallytryingto aChieve

 

ledtothe

 

dumplng

 

ofthevision

 

and

 

its

         

replacementwith

 

onethatechoedthe early beginning

 

ofthe company:”ou「current

         

short-,medium-,andlong‐term visionistobuildthingspeople wi=buy,
“Thiswasseen

   

AdditionaI

  

Hollensbe,E.,Wookey,C.,Hickey,L.,andGeorge,G.2014.organizationswithpur

    

Reading

   

pose.4mdemyqf賜伽αge′僻〃L加‘mq/57(5):1227‐34.Discussesvlslonandpurposein

                  

ternlsofthe“
greatergood

“andtheorganization’scontributiontosociety.Theauthors

                

arguethatan organization
’ssenseofpurposemustrecognizetheinterdependenceof

                   

businessandsociety,

                  

lbarra,日.2015.4α/次eq/eqde′;豹方?化左化eq′eqde Boston:Harvard Business Review

                

Press.〇節ersadviceonthinkingstrategicallyandavoidingthedistractionsofshort-term

                 

Priorities.Citing GeorgeVV.Bushandhisdismissivecommentabout“theVisionthing,

                   

H[er・1linialbarraarguesthat“theabi日tytoenV1slonpossibilities食)rthefutureandto

           

sharethatvision withothersdistinguishesleaders官om nonleader (P,40).

           

Malnight,T.W.,Buche,1.,andDhanar鴫 C.2019.PutPurPoseatthecore

ofyour

           

strategy, 帰館堀川 β”s/′?ess尺e雑踏ーノ97(5) 0-79.ExP1ainshow aclearstatementofthe

                   

organization’s missionorpurposecontributesto perlt)rlrlanceandcompetitiVeadvantage.

            

Venus, M.,Stam,D.,andvan KnipPenberg,D.2019.Visionsofchangeasvlslonsof

           

continuity.‐4md勿リノグ Mqmgeme〃『お“rm/62(3):66 90.Asdiscussedinthischapter,

                   

oぼersthecounterintuitiveargumentthatgoodvisionstatementsshouldeInphasize

204

 

Chapter6

 

乃′′poseの7d”おデの?

continuityaswenaschange,Change meansuncertainty,WhichCanbede]MーotiVating,

Continuityandstabilityarereassuringandcanhelptoovercomepotentialresistance

tochange,

Roundup

Howdoyoudistinguishmission(orpur‐

pose)from vision?lsthisanimportant

distinction?

 

ln

 

yourorganization,how

aーigned

 

areyour

 

purpose

 

and

 

vision?

Are

 

there competing

 

missions

 

and

vlslons

 

inyouror9anization?

 

How are

theseresolved?

VVhat

 

criteria

 

do

 

you

 

use

 

to decide

whethermissionandvisionstatements

are-ikeーytobeusefulinyourorgan-za-

tion?VVhatothercriteriamightyouwish

totakeintoaccount?

Do

 

your

 

organization’s mission

 

and

v1s-on

 

statements

 

meetthose

 

criteria?

lf

 

not, how

 

would you

 

recommend

changingthem?

Looking

 

atthe

 

language

 

ofyour

 

mis-

sionstatement,isitabstractandvague,
ordoesituseinterestingimagery?How

couldyouimproveyourorganization’s

missionstatement?

Hereisashortsummaryofthekeypointsthatwewouldlikeyoutotake丘omthischaPter,

inrelationtoeachofthelearningoutcomes:

圏霊園 ☆

 

&叩/の7Z庇 の淳〃?だ′郡元rα〃〆”gの′鶏自力eの′7cepな げ〃〃勿oserormなs!o′7ノのばvZs!o″α″〆

 

加Wqpproαc庇szo 殆どseZssz′esdepの7do′自力eZmqge 〆mqmg!′?go増加Zzの!om/効の7ge,

 

Missionisastatementofpurpose:W〆hyarewehere?Visionisafutureaspiration:”/hat

 

dowewanttoachieve?Somecommentatorsarguethatstatementsofmissionandvision

 

areindispensable,givingpurpose,direction,motivation,inspiration,andchange.There

 

isevidencethataclearsenseoforganizationalpurposecancontributeto

organizational

 

perあrmanceandsustainedcompetitiveadvantage,othercommentatorsarguethatthese

 

conceptsaretooabstractandvagueandthattheyhavebecome meaningless,attracting

 

cynlclsm when mostorganizations have

 

similarly bland

 

statementsaboutexcellence,

 

socialresponsibility,empoweredemployees,anddelightedcustomers.

   

Theconceptsofmissionandvisionvarywiththeimageofchangemanagementthat

 

isin use. For

 

e×ample,the

 

directorimage

 

assumesthatresponsibilityFor 丘aming

Doesyourv-slon

 

promiseabreakwith

thepastandabrighterfuture?Couldem-

ployeesfeelthreatenedbythis?VVou1dit

be

 

helpfuー

 

to

 

emphasize

 

continuity--

whatisn’tchanging?

VVhatprocesshaveyouused,orseenin

use,tocraftaneffectivevision?Doyou

haveapersonalpreferencetowardan

intuitive

 

or

 

ananalytical

 

approach

 

to

visiondeve-opment?VVhy?

lstherean“innervoice“inyourorganー-

zation?

 

VVhat

 

are

 

the

 

”bread‐and‐but-

ter”issues?Arethere”undiscussable”

issuesinyourorganization?

Whatisyourjudgment:whendovisions

fail,and when

 

doestheireffectiveness

fade?Canvisionsberevitalized?How?

VVhat

 

isyour

 

position:do mission

 

and

vision

 

drive

 

change?

 

Do mission

 

and

visionhelpchange?lnpa代iculaちdoesvi‐

sionneedvisiona~leaders?

                                       

Chapter6

 

月‘′poseの?〆”isわ〃

 

205

missionandVisionstatementsliesWithseniorleaders,TheCaretakerassumesthatthe
organization

’s missionandVision areshaPedPrimarilybyexternal食)rces.Thecoach

後cilitatestheConsultationandco‐Creation Processthroughwhich missionandVision

aredeveloPedbysta賃丘om acrosstheorganization.Thenurturersees missionsand
VIS1onsemergingfromtheC1ashofunPredictable化)rCesandastemPoraryconstructs.

丑叩友粥 豹evq/“eげαc/mro増加Zz傭わ加/pz!のoseor′mss!o′?騨memの7Z
A証 organization

’sPurPoseisitsreason食)rbeinginbusiness.H[avingaC1earPurPose
hasbecomeimPortantas moreemP1oyees一ルlillennialsin Particular-areloo顔ng貴)r
meaning1n]lworkwithapurPosethatContributestosociety.PurPosecanhavestrategic
benefits,helpingtheorganizationtoidentifyandexploitnew marketopportunitiesthat

areconsistentwiththatpurPose.EvidencesuggeststhatPurpose‐driven organizations

gainhigher marketshare,havehigherProductivityandgrowth,havebetterjobsatis-
鏡ctionandemP1oyeeretention,andaremoreinnovative,Forgreaterimpactand menロー

orability,missionstatementsshoulduseconcreteimageryandnotabstractions.

Evidenceandexperiencesuggestthat,tobee節ective,vlslonsshouldbeclear,aPPealing,
vivid,ambitious,and attainable,providingasenseofdirection andguidingdecision
making,but

 

also

 

flexible

 

enough to

 

accommodate

 

initiative and

 

change.E掻ective
vls・ons

 

also

 

describe

 

a desirable-perhapsidea1一future あrtheorganization. Further

emotionalproperties

 

ofthe e甜ective vlslon,although difficultto

 

de丘ne,arethatit
“危elsgood“andthatitemphasizescontinuity,asa“completebreakwiththepast

“can
beseenasthreateninganddemotivating.Researchdemonstratesthatvisionsexpressed

inimage‐basedtermsare more motivatingand memorablethanthosethatusevague

abstractions.
“B1urry vision bias”canbeovercome usingthetechnique oftemporaI

PrQiection,whichinvolvesimagininghowtheorganization willlook,feel,and actin
thefuture・

4卿リノメ族ere〃“舵豹oぬ 鋼〆processesルrdelぞ/opZ〃gymo〃s.
Thereare manyaPProachesto develoPingvlslon,ranging onthe 危miHarcontinuum
丘om”telr(thechiefexecutivedeterminesthevision)to“co‐create“(everyonepartici-

patesinthedevelopment).Thereisno“onebestway,
”andchoiceisinnuencedbythe

change managementimagem use.Leader‐dominated methodscanberapid,andmay
beinspirational,butarenotconsistentwiththeconceptsofemployeeempowerment

andengagement.M[ostcommentatorssuggestthatco‐creation methods,wheretherole

ofseniorleadersisto“orchestrate“thevision-cra貴ingprocess,are morelikelytoPro-
ducebettervisionsand moresuccessfulchange,Staぜ whoarenotdirectlyresponsible
あrcreatingan organizatiodsvisioncan neverthelessbecomeinvolvedintheprocess,
byhelpingtoshapeseniorleaders’ideas,bytranslatingthecorporatevision 危rthe
membersofagiventeamordePartment,andbydevelopinga丘ontlineteam visionthat

canbetransmitteduptheorganization.

 

otherapproachestocra貴ingvisionhavebeendescribedasintuitive,analytical,and
benchmarking.lntuitive approachesrely onimagination and creativeimagery:W/hat
are ourpersonaland organizationalpriorities,and whatdo we needto doto work

toward ourdesired 苑ture?Aaanalyticalapproachlinksvisionto purposeandgoals,
usingquestionssuchas:W’hodoweserve?W/hatdowedo?W′heredoweplace most

圏国璽

206

 

ChaPter6

 

P”′Po艶d〃d“s′o/?

           

○foureがorts? HOWdo Weoperationalizethosee”コorts?AbenchmarldngapProachis

             

mLoree×ternany化)cusedand develoPsvisioninrelationtokeycomPetitors:VVhatdo

             

ourcompetitorsd‐owen?Howcan Wedobetterthanthem?日[OWshouldWe measure

             

ourachieVel工lent?\フVhatWiuitbelikeWhenthosestandardshaVebeen met?

     

 

         

 

       

Visionscan鏡江貴)rmanyreasons:toosPeci賃c,toovague,toocomP1e×,魚ilstoaddress

knownProblems,detached 丘omthebusiness,unrealistic,and doesnotoaヨera

clear

view ofthefuture,LackofadaPtationtochangingcircumstancescan makeav・slon

obso1ete,contributingto

 

decisionsthatare notconsistentwith new environmenta1

conditionsandconstraints,Visionsaiso魚ilbecauseof”Visionconisions“-thePresence

oftoo manycomPetingvlslons貴)ranorganization.

互xp超微 動ec鯛耀かz‘”◇〃 げ″z‘′pose の雌 yZSZO′2のo増加Zz傭わ′?〆c加増e.
vveexploredthreekeydebates.First,doesvisiondrivechange,ordoesvlslonemerge

丘omtheorganizationalchangeProcess?Second,doesvlslon contributetoorhinder

the organizationalchange Process? Third,arevisionsattributesofheroicleadersor

heroicorganizations?VVithcomLPeningargumentsonbothsidesofthesedebates,the

answersarenotclear.

  

Thetraditionalview seesthevisionoftheheroic,charismaticleaderdrivingand

contributingpositivelytothe organizationalchange process,Thereisevidence and

argumenttochallengethatPerspective.Theimportanceofcharismaandvision may
havebeenexaggerated.CharismaticseniorfiguresPerhapscontributelesstosustained

organizationaleぼectivenessthanembeddedvisions,corevalues,andenduringideol-

ogies,Visionsareemergentbecauseitisdi賃icultto articulateaclearimageofthe

futureatthestartofadisruPtivetransFormationalchangeProcess・Visionscanimpede

changeby makingstrongemotionalaPPealstothefutureinsteadofFocusingoncur-

rent

 

oPerationalproblems

 

and where

 

organizational

 

capabilities are

 

inadequateto

achievingthevision.

 

Thechange managermustbeawareofthesedebatesandtensionsandtakethese

considerationsinto accountbeforeembarkingon avision develoPmentProcessata

Particulartime

 

in

 

 

specific

 

conte×t. The weight

 

ofcommentary, 丘om academic

research and managementconsultants,apPearsto endorsethevalueofarticulating

clear

 

and

 

comPelling

 

vlslons, However,this

 

perspective

 

should not

 

be

 

taken

 

あr

granted,and a morecautious,skePtical,criticalaPproachisPerhapsadvisable.The

roleandneedForvisionshouldbeassessedinrelationtoeachsPecificorganizational

changesituation,VVhathasbeene]日当ective貴)roneorganization,givenitshistory,cur-

rentchanenges,and future

 

aspirations, may notbewhollyappropriate 貸)ranother

organization withadiがerentbackground,adifferentset。fprob1ems,andadifferent

desiredfuture.

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Chapteropeningsilhouettecredit:FunKeyFactory/Shutterstock

Chapter盤豊熟饗

organぱation DeVe1opmen

and Sehse-Makm9

Approaches

Learning objectives

Bytheendofthischapteryoushou-dbeab-eto:

圃翻圏欄間

 

Appreciatemoreclearlytheorganizati。naIChangeaPproachesunderpinn

in

  

  

  

thecoachandinterpreterimagesofmana9ingchange

耀霞覇灘藁露顕園

 

Understandtheorganization Development(OD)approachtochange.

璽璽璽圃

 

Beawareofextensionsofthe OD approachsuchasAppreciativelnq

uir

y,

 

 

 

   

Positive organizati。naIScholarship,and Dialogic OD.

E圏圏圏麗

 

Understandthesense‐makingapproachtochange.

 

 

 

    

“凶hen『he wor/dchonges

    

oroundyouo打dwhen/rchonges

 

ogo′“sryou--w力orusedrobeoそo′/w′nd

 

′snowoheodw′nd-youhovero/eon′“『

  

rhofond方gu「eourwhottodobecous

     

Comp/O′“′“9′snTostrotegyぞ

282

 

CI1aPter9

 

0′耳の7′zα”○〃上)g1’eわ野′77gmの7dSe′7se‐み名α膚′7g4口Proqc力郎

鰹霊園璽LA-ternative APProachesto Managin9

Change

 

 

 

      

ofthes広imagesofmanagingchange,the mrezq比grand′mm/だrimageshavetheir云o

un-

 

       

dationsinthe負eldoforganizationtheory;theother危urimages一αかぎαの;のαcた,′?”1ノZgdrの;

 

        

and!′?彫塑だす好一havestrongerあundationsintheorganizationalchangefield.Thischapte

         

and

chapter

 

lodelvefurtherintothe あundationsofthe危urimagesthatarerootedi

        

theorganizationalchange五eldandexploretheirimplicationsあrhowto manageorganl-

        

zationalchange,They

are

 

alsotheFourimagesthat,in various ways,assumethat

he

         

change managerhasanimportantinfluenceonthe waychangeoccursinorganiza

tions.

        

lncontrast,thefirsttwoimages,mだ如たerand′7zザ粥だ′;haveincommonanassumpti

on

        

thatchange managersre解かe〆口的er豹α〃方窺わzechange.Thereあre,thischapterandchap-

        

terloexplorethe危urimagesthatassumethatchange managershaveanactiverole

in

        

theinitiation,support,andoutcomesoforganizationalchange,Thischapterconsiders

the

 

          

化)undationalapproachesassociatedwiththemαc方andZ′”e′Prezerimages;chapterlocon‐

           

sidersthe化)undationalapproachesassociatedwiththeαZreczorand′7α覇gα『orlmages,

         

Underpinnedbythe のqc力image,the organization Development(OD)approach

is

           

one whereitsadherentspresenttheirdevelopmentalprescriptions貴)rachieving

change

 

            

asbeingbased,atleasttraditionally,uponacoresetofvalues,onesthatemphasizeth

at

        

changeshouldbene賃tnotjustorganizationsbutthepeople whostaぜthem.

           

oD hasP1ayedacentralroleintheorgallizationalchange賃eld食)roverhalfacentury.I

       

the立2012reviewofoD,BurnesandCooke(p,1396)arguethatit”hasbeen,andarguably,

        

st皿is,the majorapproachtoorgamZationalchangeacrossthe Western world,andincrea浄

            

mglyglobally.
”H[owever,asthischapterandchapterlo追ustrate,dif発rentilnages

ofchange

       

managementareassociated withd獅erentideasaboutwhatsortofapproaches(andtech-

       

         

iques)shouldbeusedtotrytobringaboutchangewithinorganizations,ltisnotsurprlsmg,

         

there]主)re,thatoD’slonghistoryhasbeenaccompa1died,丘omt=ヒnetot立ne,byexpressions

            

ofconcern astoitscontinu血grelevance,leadingsome writerstoraisethe question

       

whetherODis“incrisis boththeゐ”mα/〆‐4pp/!edB豹αv卿口/Sc′e′lce[40(4),2004]

and

         

oの 銃口のめ〃er{46(4),2014]hiwehadspecialissues危cusedonthequestionofoD’songo‐

         

          

ngrelevance.A1ong‐standmgcriticism ofoDhasbeenthecla無ithatithasbeensidelined

         

丘omtheconcernsofthebus血esscommunitybecauseofitspreoccupation withhumanistic

         

valuesratherthanwithotherissuessuchasbus血essstrate勘′(Hornstei誼,2001;Beer,2014),

           

Approachestomanagゴロdgchangeotherthan OD haveemerged,Forexample,underp=hじned

         

bythe粥彫塑形Zerimage,thesense-makjbogapproach maintaiロsthatchangeemergesovert節le

         

andconsistsofaseriesofinterpretiveactivitiesthathelptocreateinpeoplenew meahdbogs

         

abouttheirorganizationsandaboutthewaysinw超chtheycanoperatedif発rentlyinthe範mre.

          

頓/e

 

commence

this

 

chapterconsideringthe

 

approaches underpinnedbythe

 

coαcA

         

imageandthen moveontotheZ′#e′prezgrimage.Furtherapproachesto managingchange

         

areaddressedinchapterlo,

霊園 organization Deve-opment《OD}

          

lnthissection,weconsidertheunderlyingtenetsoftheoDapproachto managingchange

           

alongwiththeroleoftheoD practitioner,vvethenreview anumberofchallenges

that

          

havebeendirectedatoDincludingthecontinuingrelevanceofthevaluesunderlyingthe

ChaPter9

 

0′耳qmzα“の7上杉veわP“7emの7dSe“s抄膚毎左方7g月βProdcたes

 

283

OD

 

approach,theuniversalapplicabilityofthesevalues,andtherelevance

 

ofOD

to

large‐scalechange.

TraditionaーOD Approach:FundamentaIValues

ODasachangeinterventionapproachhasdevelopedovertinleandincorporatedanunl‐

berofdi爺erentperspectives(seetable9.1),eachofwhichisdiscussedinthischaPter,

 

ln drawingtogetherthecommonthreadsoftraditionalOD,Becな山ard(1969)dePicts
theclassic OD apProachasonethathasthe貨)1lowingcharacteristics:

〃お〃/”““edandinvo1vesasystemーaticdiagnosisofthewho1eorganiZationa1system,

plan長)ritsimprovement,andprovisionofadequateresources.

刀解『op げ功eo増加Zzα”o〃iscommittedtothechangeprocess.

万 の〃?s餌 勿のroy/〃g的e功徒”nだ肥ssoftheorganizationtohelpitachieveits mission.

互声/o刀gzerm,tyPicallyta]bLngtWoorthreeyearstoachievee節ectivechange.

 

 

  

 

      

 

       

C汚α“gZ“gq助力‘d例 の?〆ゎg角αvZorisa化)cusofthechangee爺ort.

五ゆけ彰〃如“αsd/e″刀殻gisimportantasithelpstoidenti~currentbehaViorsand

modificationsthatareneeded.

Gro雌雄 α“〆 だの刀s食)rmthekey化)cus短rchange.

  

Though

 

it

 

is

 

commonly

presented

 

as

 

being

 

aimed

 

at

 

incremental, developmental,
first‐orderchange,otherwritersclaimthatwhatunifiestheODfield,atleasttraditionally,
isanemphasison acoresetofvalues.Thesevaluesbuildupon humanisticpsychology
andemphasizetheimportanceofdevelopingpeoplein work organizationsandhelping
themtoachievesatis態ction(Nicholl,1998a).Threevaluesetsareinvolved:

れ〃“α“Zsrzcydz‘esre1atetoopenness,honesty,andintegrity.

DemocrqzZcl概ね鑑srelatetosocialjustice,fteedom ofchoice,andinvolvement.

Deve/opme“ね却〆z‘esrelatetoauthenticity,gro~砿h,andselfrea員zation(Nicholl,1998c),

  

 
 

 

 
 

  
 

 

 

 

 
 
 

 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 

 

 
 
 

             

 

 
 

 

    

 

   

 

   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

 

 
 
 
 

1940s

199os/2000s

2000s/2010S十 Positiv

TABLE

91

TheEvolutionofOrganizationDeveloPment

       

Approach

         

Perspec

tive

      

TraditionalOD

      

1mProveorganizationaーPe汗or『nancethr

 

         

 

              

andgrouPbehaVioちandaPPiyhumanis

/2000s十

 

Large-scaーechange

   

Enablewholeorganizationengageme

      

  

 

 

               

individualandgrouplevel.

/2010s十

 

Appreciativeinquiry

   

Beginbyfocusingonthebestofthec

         

 

                

thanonitsproblems,

/2010S十

 

PositiveorganizationaI

 

Emphasizeinterventionsthatimprove

     

scholarship

      

DialogicOD

       

1dentifyandacknowledgedifferent

or

   

     

 

                  

viewsastotheeXistingreality,anden

   

  

                   

onthechangeissues,

Large-

rentorganIZ

unlanCO n.

’’

284

 

ChaPter9

 

0′耳ロ′?!zm′o′7Del’e/oの′??g′7rα′7dSe′7se…△”化′′7g自愛Proqc方es

             

H[unlan develoP窟lent, 態irness,OPenness,choice,andthebalancebetween autonomy

       

andconstraintare粒ndamentaltothesevalues(Burke,1997),ltissaidthatthese

values

           

Wereradica1and”agutsysetofbe=e]Grinre1ationtothetimeinwhichthey weredeVe1‐

            

oped;thatis,inthel940sandl950swhenorganizationalhierarchywasdominant,elnpha‐

       

slzmgauthority,rationality,andeぜiciencyratherthanhumanismandindividuality(Burke,

       

1997).lnthissense,thetraditionalpracticeofOD hasasits あcuspeople andis

not

            

necessarily meanttosolely化)cusontheinterestsofmanagementortheprofitability

of

       

thef立m(Nicholl,1998a).

The OD Practitioller

CentraltothetraditionalOD approachistheroleofthe“OD practitioner
”who may

be

eitherinternalorexternaltotheorganization.AtypicalOD practitionerhelpsto“struc‐

tureactivitiestohelptheorganization memberssolvetheirown problemsandlearnto

dothatbette (FrenchandBell,1995,p,4), Wherethisisbaseduponactionresearch,
itinvolvesavarietyofstepssuchas(Cummingsand Worley,2019):

1.Pro鋭釧7Zde′?『於c研か7,Someoneintheorganizationbecomesawareofwhatheorshe

  

thinksisaproblem thatneedstobeaddressed,

2. Co′?sz!/rの!0′7w”ゑα′7Qの〃〆”αm○′?e′:TheclientandthepractitionercometogetherWith

  

thelatterendeavoringtocreateacollaborativedialogue,

3. 辱Zqgの力er粥gα′〆Prリメe′??〆超g打os〆s.1nterviews,observations,surveys,andanalysisof

  

perおormance data occurto assistinproblem diagnosis,Each ofthesetechniquesis

  

recognizedasaninterventioninitselfinthesensethatitinvolvesaninteraction with

 

people,

4,ReedらQc左.Theconsultantprovidestheclientwithrelevantdata,atthesametimepro-

 

tectingtheidentityofpeople丘om whominFormation wasobtained.

5.ノoZ′7ZDrob/e“?〆ねg′?o瀞浅 Aspartoftheactionresearchprocess,peopleareinvolvedin

  

considerationofin食)rmationanddiscuss whatitmeansintermsofrequiredchanges.

6.t

 

ZOZ′?rqczZの7p/mmZ′?g.Thespecificactionsthatneedtobetakenare

identified.

7. C力”′?geqαZo′7s.Theintroduction ofandtransitionto neW techniquesand behaviors

  

occur,

8. Rz″豹er

 

αα畝

 

g‐q抜e“′?g.

outcomes

 

of

 

change

 

are

 

deter

mined

 

and

 

further

 

actions

 

identified.

lncoachingpeoplethroughsuchchangeprocesses,Cull・mingsand Worley(2019)argue

thatOD practitionersneedavarietyofskills,including:

1.方7rrαPの筈o〃”/s顔偽.Havingawell‐developedsetofvaluesand

personal

integrityinclud-

  

ingtheabilitytoretaintheirownhealthinhigh-stressorganizationalsituations,

2.方7Ze′Peiwo′?α/sた”お.Skillsthatareneededto work withgroups,gaintheirtrust,and

  

providethem withcounselingandcoaching,

3,Ge刀em/m′7s”/如”o′7s毅〃.lncludingknrowledgeaboutinterventiontechniquestoassist

  

themindiagnosingproblemsanddesign立1gchangeinterventions,

4, 〇rgq′7ZzのZo′? )eve/qP′7?e″ 物eo′γ.Ensuringthatthey haveacurrentunderstandingof

  

thespecialistfieldofwhichtheyareapart.

               

 

      

                      

ChaPter9

 

0増の?!zq“○“ )eve加野me摺餌7dSの?se-A‘”膚′7g月″野川qc乃郎

 

285

               

Akeyideaunderpinning manyODinterventionsispsychologist KurtLe「win’sthree-

               

stepmodelofchange;zメリリだe““ghowtheorganizationoperates,叱 伽g勿gthe

organization

                   

inspecificWays,andthen〆三歩だezZ′?gthechangesintotheoperationsofthe

organization.

                 

【whilesomecritics,inparticularCummingsetal.(2016),havearguedthatthethree-step

                

modelismoreacreationofLewin’s貸)1lowersthanofLewinhimself,morerecentresearch

               

byBurnes(2020)hasshownthethree-stepconcepttobewell-embeddedinLewin’swork.]

              

Howthethree‐step modelofchangerelatestotheactionsoftheOD practitionerisset

                 

outintable9.2.

  

      

Ln

         



 

 
 
TABLE

9.2

C1assicODChangelnterventionProcesses

Sources:AdaPtedftomFrenchandBell(1995)andCummingsandWorley(2019).

CriticismsofOD
AstheapplicationofOD asanapproachto managingchangebecamemorewidespread,
sodidattentiontoitslimitations.EvenadvocatesoftheOD approachbegantoac超lowl-
edgethatthereareproblemsinthefield.Forexample,FrenchandBell(1995)identified

s旗ofthese:

1.ODd所川筋〃sα〃α の〃cepzs. OD mayconsistofsingleor multipleinterventionsover

 

di版erentperiodsoftime,soestablishingtherelationshipbetween“OD”anditsability

 

to enhance“organizationale掻ectiveness”is

 

di菖icult,especially giventhatthe

latter

 

termitselfalsolacksprecisedefinitions.
2.Z〃ZemdvαZ霞かPro鋭ems.Thisrelatesto whetherthechangethatoccurred Wascaused

 

bythec加〃geZ川erye〃ZZo〃orqm〃ge げo功erおαoな.
3.Exze摺餌y〆!〆!かproゎをms.Thisisthegeneralizabilityquestion andrelatesto Whether

 

oD anditstechniquesareappropriatetoallorganizationalsettings.

4.乙αた げ 物eo観 Thereisno comprehensivetheory ofchangeto assistresearchersin

 

  

llowing whattolookfbrinWhattheystudy.

 

   

 

 

 

   

 

   

 

 
 
 
 

 
 

 

  
 

 

 

ODpractition

andinitialdia

286

 

ChaPter9

 

0増q′7Zz傭わ′7上加増わ野/77g′7rq′7dSe′7sg粥函葱′7g月Pz7rodc方es

5,Froわた′77s・′vなあ′?7eα栂′“′壇 鰭rmdec角の?ges,UsingPre‐changeandthen Post‐changesur-

 

Veysto measureattitudinalchangesareProblematicaspeople mayVieWthescaledif

 

角rently whentheyansweritasecondtime,

6,Fro劫の77s・“的′mm7αsαの7ceqIPProqc力esro だseqr所.Theabnitytousethese

techniques

 

(hypothesistesting,assessingcause-eぼectrelationships,etc.)isquestionedinrelation

 

to ODbeingaprocessbasedonactionresearch.

 

French andBell(1995,P,334)adoptedanoptimisticviewofthissituation,argulng

that“thesedo notaPpeartobeinsurmountable problems

 

atthistime,although

they

continuetoP1agueresearche]離orts.
“However,otherWriterswerecriticalofsuchoptimism,

pointing

 

out

thatthe

 

approachislargelydescriPtive

 

and PrescriPtive,o賃en 魚ilingto

adequatelyconsidertheinherentlimitationsandunderlyingassumptionsofitsowntech-

niques(oswickandGrant,1996).ODhasbeenpresentedwitharangeofothercriticisms

relatingtotheextenttowhichitdealsadequatelywithissuessuchasleadership,strategic

change,power,andrewardsystems(Cummingsand Worley,2019),Three 鏡rthercriti-

cislnsrelatetothecurrentrelevanceofOD’straditionalvalues,theuniversalityofthose

values,

andthe

 

abilityofOD to

 

eng・agein

large‐scale

 

change, Each oftheseissuesis

addressednext.

CurrentRe-evance of OD’s TraditionaIVa1ues

Despiteitslongevity,orPerhaPsbecauseofit,theissueoftheongomgreleVanceoftheValues

underly血gODcontinuestobeamatterofdebate(see,e,g.,JatロlesonandMarshak,2018),
Gojmgback20十years,prom血entODthoughtleaderwarnerBurke(1997,p.7)ar罫ledthat,
貴)rmanyexperienced OD practitioners,

‘‘theProコ産)ssionhaslostitsway-thatitsvaluesare

nolongersu伍cientlyhonored, muchlessPracticed,andthattheul=relentingemphasison

Bob

 

Marshak

 

is

 

 

very

 

experienced

 

and

 

highly

 

re‐

gardedODconsu-tant,ForMarshak,oneofthegreat

ODcha=engesisdealing withwhathedescribesas
”coveltProcesses,

”those”powelfulprocessesthatim-

pactorganizationsbutremain

 

unseen,unspoken,or

unacknowledgedlandwhichiinc1udehiddenagendas,
b-indspots,organizationalpolitics,theelephant

inthe

room,secrethopesandWishes,tacitassumptions,and

unconsciousdynamics“(Marshak,2006,p.xi.).

  

下o

 

reducethe

 

likelihoodthatcoVertprocesses

thwart

 

an

 

attempt

 

to bring

 

about

 

or9ani

zationa

change, Marshak(2006)identifiesfive”keys“to

dealing withcovertprocesses

 

inthecontextofan

oDintervention:

1. Creofeoのsycho/ogにo/勿 sofeenWron」men[D

  

Whateveryoucantocreateaclimateoftrustand

respect

where

 

people

 

feel

 

safeto

 

reveal

 

their

thoughtsandbeliefs.

5.Adcons′srent′y W′th

 

e叉Pecrof′ons,Stay Within

  

the

 

scopeofy

our

 

briefas

 

explained

 

to

 

partici-

  

pantsattheoutsetunlessyouexplicitlyrenegoti-

  

ateexpectationswiththem.

3.Assumetho士peop/eorefrコメngrhe′rbestPutthe

 

focusoninquiryratherthanjudgment.

4.Look′“治em′rroにBeseーf‐awaresothatyourbe‐

  

haviorastheconsultantisdrivenbythe

situation

  

ofthepeopleyouareworkingWithandnot

your

  

owncovertnormsandbe-iefs.

2.seekmoVeme“rnore叉posUre.Focusonmovlng

 

the

 

situation

 

forward, not being

 

judgmental

  

aboutthe

 

matterrevealed(i.e,,progress

 

not

 

Punishment).

ChaPter9

 

0′旨立川zq”○“ )g1’e/0脚??emq〃dSe′7sg山毎殻′7g月口Proロメ7es

 

287

thebottom 血]ehastakenover.
”Thissent中lentwasareactiontothegrowingroleof

some

ODpractitionersasadvisersoncorporaterestructurings,mergersandtakeovers,andsoon,
despitethelackofevidenceofthevaluescoretooDbeingcentraltosuchchanges.

 

As

 

aresult,aview あrmedthat“OD haslostsomeofitspower,itspresence,and

perhapsitsperspective“(Burke,1997,p,7).窺leditorofODルロ臨め肥ratthetime,Dave

Nichoil,agreedwithBurke’sgeneralassessment,pointingtohow manyofthevaluesof

ODareCon丘ontationalto manyofthevaluesheldinourorganizations,leadingto“stark

contrasts” between beingrelevantand value‐neutralorbeingvalue-laden and marginal

(Nicholl,1998c).NichollarguedthatODpractitionersneedtoremindthemselves

ofthe

dilemmathey 魚ce,ofassistingbothindividualdevelopmentand organizationaIPer危r-

mance-whichhecharacterizesas“contradictoryelements.
” Bydelvingbackinto OD’s

heritage,Nicholl(1999)suggestedthattheyregaintheirhumilityandpresenttoclients
notcertaintybuteducatedco叩ecture.Finally,heproposedtheneed 危raparadigmshi代

inhowthecorporationisviewedandrebuilt,allowingspacetorecognizethatcorporations

arenotnecessarilyjustinstitutions あrprofitbutsocialinstitutions.

 

0therOD writershavechallengedmanagersto maketheirorganizationsmLore宣lclusive

(multiplelevelsofinvolvementindecision mak血g),tocreatemutualaccountab道ty(血麺Dg
perlt)rmanceremunerationtoadherencetocorevalues,stakeholders,andcorporatesustai誼-

abiHty),toreinfbrceinterdependence(betweenindividuals,organizations,andthe wider

society),toe×pandnotionsoftinleandspace(suchasconsideringtheimpactofdecisions

fbr魚turegenerations),toensurethewiseuseofnaturalresources(suchasconside

ration

ofrenewableandnonrenewableresources),andtorede賃nethePurposeoftheorganization

intermsofmultiplestakeholders(includingcustomers,stoc肋olders,community,planet,
descendants,organizationalleaders,employees,anddirectors)(Gelinasandlames,1999).

Thevaluingofindusion,opencommunication,coー-

ーaboration,and

 

empowerment

 

hascaused

 

ODto

struggーeinrecentdecadesinthefaceofapercep-

tionthatthesearevaluesfroma“gentler”timeand

lnconsistentwithfiercelycompetitivemarketswhere

onlyrapid

 

change,driven

 

bytop‐downedict,

can

givehopeofsurviva-.However,BurnesandCooke

(2012)querythischaracterization ofOD,lnstead

theyask,
‘ぬreweinatimewhentheissueofvalues

hasneverbeenmoreimportant?“Theysuggestthat

manycountriesarestrugglingwiththeimpactofor‐

ganizationsexhibitingunethical,andfinancia1fyor

environmenta-ly

 

unsustainable,practices.lfthis

 

is

so,BurnesandCooke(2012,p.1417)argue,OD“with

its

 

humanist,democraticand ethicalvalues,wide

rangeofpanicipativetoolsandtechniques,and

ex-

perienceinpromotingbehaviorchanges,isidealーy

p1aced..,toplayaleadingro-einthemovementto

amoreethicalandsustainablefuture.

  

Similarly,widelyexperiencedprofessorandcon-

sultant,HarvardBusinessSchoo-’sMikeBeer(2014,
p.61),argues:

VViththecorporatescandalsofthe

 

pastde-

cade,clearevidencethatwearedoingdam‐

agetoourplanet,andthegreatrecessionof

2008...higherambitionCE0sarereframing
the

 

purpose

 

of

 

their

 

firm

 

rom

 

increasing

shareholdervaluetocontributingtoallstake‐

holders..,.Thistrendisopenlngupnewop-

portunitiesforthefie

ld

 

ofODto

 

help

these

higher

 

ambition

 

ーeaders

 

to

 

cre

ate

 

a better

world.ト{igherambitioncompaniesintegrate

head,heart,andhands.

288

 

ChaPter9

 

0増ロ′7′zq”○〃上)g1窄め野川emq′7dSe′7se‐A‘‘”鱈′7g月PProqc力釧

Are OD Values Unlversa1?

onechallengeleveledatODiswhethertheapproach andthevaluesunderpinningit

arerelevant outsideof

the United

 

States, whereitwas predominantly developed,As

withtheissueofthecontinuingrelevanceofOD values overtime(aspreviouslydis‐

cussed),debateovertheglobalappropriatenessofoDvaluescontinues(see,e.g,,Sorenson

and aeger,2014),

 

Some advocatesportray OD changevaluesasbeinguniversal, with culturaldiffer…

encesservingas“aveneerwhichcoverscommon 和ndamentalhumanexistence”(B1ake
etal,,2000,p.60),Forexample,B1akeetal.(2000)claimthattheclassic 賜の?αgerZ”/

ror乙eααg′随わノGr彰 丘ameworkdevelopedby RobertB1akeandJane Moutoninthe

l960shasbeenappliedsuccess範1lyin manydi掻erentcountries,ForB1akeetal,(2000,

p,54)this丘amework was“probablythefirstsystematic,comprehensive approachto

organizationalchange
”andhadplayedacentralroleinthedevelopmentofOD.They

arguethatthe

 

grid

 

sustains

 

and

 

extends

 

core

 

oD values

 

in

 

seeking

greater

 

candor,
openness,andtrustin organizations,Thegrid mapssevenleadershipstylesthatvary

intermsoftheiremphasisonpeopleversusresults:controlling,accommodating,status

quo,indifferent,paternalist,opportunist,and

 

sound-the

 

latter

 

style being pre長)rred

inso住もrasitportraysaleadershipstylethatisconcernedForbothresultsand people

(B1akeetal.,2000).

  

The

 

gridhasbeen used

 

as

 

the basis

 

for

 

change

 

leadership

 

seminars,helpingto

establishbothindividualawarenessandskills,lnresponsetothequestionofthegrid’s

applicabilityoutsideoftheUnitedStates,theyclaim thatithasbeenusedextensively

・n a variety ofcountries(includingwithin Asia),in partbecauseof“itsabilityto

e鈷ectivelyemployauniversalmodeiofef]℃〉ctive managementandorganiZation deve1一

opmentwithin diversecultures”(B1akeetal.,2000,p,59).Similarly,免rSorenson

and ¥aeger(2014,p.58)theevidence 丘om yearsofapplication ofODin diverse

countries

 

is

 

that

 

national

 

cultural

 

values

 

are

 

more

 

akin

 

to “a

 

veneerthat

 

covers

morefundamentalanduniversalneeds,needswhicharereflectedinthefundamental

valuesofOD,

 

HOWever,otheroD advocatesaremorecircumspectabouthow 魚rthe oD

approach

isrelevantacrossculturalboundaries.Forexample,Marshak(1993)contendsthatthere

are 和ndamentally diぼerent assumptions underlying Eastern(Con和cian/Taoist)and

western(Lewinian/oD)viewsoforganizationalchange.Thesedi都erencesareoutlinedin
table9,3.Marshaにs(1993)viewisthat oD practitioners needto view with careany

assumptionstheymayholdthatoD practiceshaveuniversalapP1icability,Whileル1irvis

(2006)recommendsthatoDbecomemoreopentoapluralismofideasbydrawing茸om
bothEasternandv~/esternstylesofthought,Similarly,Fagenson一E1and,Ensher,andBurke

(2004,p,461),basedonthefindingsofaseve距nationstudy,concludethat”oD practi-

tioners

 

shouldcarefullyconsider dimensions

 

ofnationalculture when recommending

specificoDinterventions,

Engaglngin Large‐Scale Change

oneofthebiggestchallengestothetraditionaloDfieldwasthecriticismthatitwasill

suitedtohandlelarge‐scaleorganizationalchange,TraditionaloDtechniques化)cusedon

ChaPter9

 

0′耳の7Zz倣わ“Del’どめ力用例?その7dSe〃鰍多崩毎虚′7g月PP化’”〆?es

 

289

    

291

TABLE9.3

    

Lewinian/ODAssumptーons

           

confucian/下aoistAssumPtions
lsODChange

Cul顔reBound?

  

・Linear(movementfrompasttopresent

  

・ Cydical(constantebbandflow)

         

tofuture)

        

・Pro9ressive(newstatemoredesirable)

 

・ Processionaー(harmoniousmovement

                             

fromonestatetoanother)

        

・ Goaloriented(specificendstateinmind) ・Journeyoriented(cydicalchange,

                             

thereforenoendstate)

        

・ Basedoncreatingdisequillbrium(

by

   

. Basedonmaintainingequillbrium

         

alteringcurrentfieldofforces)

      

(achievenaturalharmony)

          

・ P1annedandmanagedbypeople

      

・ observedandfolーowedbyinvolved

         

separatefromchangeitseーf(appーication

   

people(whoconstantlyseekharmony

         

oftechniquestoachievedesiredends)

  

withtheiruniverse)

        

・ Unusual(assumptionofstaticorseml‐

                        

  

・ Usual(assumptionofconstantchange

         

staticstateoutsideofachangeProcess}

  

as,intheyi作yangphilosoPhy,each

new

                            

ordercontainsitsownnegation)

rずnonlou

anothe

ourneyo

erefore

umptio

ntf「om

Source:AdaptedfromMarshak(1993).

workillgwithindividualsandgroupdynamicsthroughProcessessuchassurvey篤edback

andteam building.Such methodscameunderattack asbeinginsuぜicienttodealwith

thelarge‐scalechangesneededbyorganizationstocoPewiththehypercompetitivebusi‐
nessworldthatcon丘ontsthem(ManningandBinzagr,1996,p.269).OD wasseenas
“tooslow,tooincrementalandtoo participative

”tobethewayto managechangeata

time when organizationso代en錠cedtheneedto make maiorchangeandtodosowith

sPeed(BurnesandCooke,2012,p,1397).

 

Asaresultofsuchcriticisms,manyOD practitionersbeganto movetheir恥cus丘om
micro‐organizationalissuesto macro,large‐systemissues,includingaligningchangetothe
strategicneedsoftheorganization(Worleyetai.,1996).Thishasledtothe

development

ofarangeoftechniques

 

designedto getthe whole

 

organizationalsystem,or atleast

representativesofdi掻erentstakeholdersofthewholesystem,intoaroom atoneandthe

sametime.

 

W/holesystem techniquestakeavarietyofあrmsandnames,includingsearchconfer-

ence(seetable9.4),範turesearch,real‐timestrategicchange,worldca発,townhallmeet-

lngs,simu-real, whole‐system

 

design, OPen‐SPace

 

technology,ICA strategic

 

P1anning

Process,particiPative design, 魚st‐cycleFulIParticiPation,large‐scaleinteractive Process,

andappreciative 範turesearch(AXelrod,1992;Bunkerand 用ban,1992,1997;Dannemi-
nerandjacobs,1992;EmeryandPurser,1996;Fuller,GriffinandLudema,2000;Holman,
Devaneand Cody,2007;K1ein,1992;Levineand Mohr,1998),Suchtechniques are

typicallydesignedto workwithuptothousandsofpeopleatonetime.

  

Thevarioustechniquesdoentaildiぼerences・Sometechniquesassumethat

organiza-

tionaIParticipantscanshaPeandenactboththeirorganizationanditssurroundingenvl‐

ronment;othersarebasedontheassumPtionthattheenvironmentisgiven(althoughits
definingcharacteristicsmayneedtobeactivelyagreedupon)andthatorganizationsand

their

 

partici

pants

 

join

 

together

 

democratically

 

to

 

identi角

 

aPpropriate

 

adaPtation

292

 

ChaPter9

 

0′旨の7迄鯖め′7Del’〆○変77g′汀の7dSの?se‐み毎顔′7g4口Prod欲es

boardroom withmembersseatedaroundonelarge

ellipticaltable).

  

Participantssatatsmallroundtables(seating

four),Thepresentersexplainedthepurposeofthe

event

 

and

 

the

 

VVorld

 

Cafき

 

process,and

 

the

 

first

roundbeganwiththepresentersaskingthepartici-

pants

 

to

 

discuss

 

their

 

own

 

experiences

 

ofreally

good

 

conversations

 

and

 

what

 

itwasaboutthose

conversationsthatmadethem

 

”reallygood.
”lnfu-

ture

 

rounds,presenters

 

asked

 

respondentstodis‐

cussquestionssuchas“VVhatcouldMOS1bellkein

fiveyears?”and”VVe’renowfiveyearsinthefuture

andMOS1hasattainedthesegoals.VVhatdidwe

do

togethere’’(JorgensonandSteier,2013,p,396).

  

Postscript:ReactionstothisuseofVVorld Cafe

diff

ered

 

between

 

participants. A1though

 

severaI

  

Proponents

 

of1arge-sca1e

 

interVention

 

approaches

 

are g1owing,sometimes

 

a1

most

evangelicaLin expoundingtheirbenefits, Weisbord(1992b,pp,9-10)claimsthat

FutureSearchcon元renceoutcomes“canbequitestartling
”andproducerestructured

bureaucratic hierarchiesinWhich”
Peoplepreviouslyinopposition o賃en acttogether

acrosshistoricbarriersinlessthan48hours.
” Results

emerge

“withgreaterspeedand

increasedcommitmentandgreatlyreducedresistancebytherestoftheorganization”

(AXelrod,1992,p.507)enhancing
”innovation,adaptation,andlearning“(AXelrod,

2001,p.22).

  

However,alongsidetestamentstothesuccessofthesetechniquesaredisagree

ments

regardingboththeoriginoflarge‐scale,whole‐system changetechniquesandtheirlikely

eぼectiVenessinhighlyVolat江eenvironments.some writersdisagreeWiththeVersionof

“OD history
”thatdepictsthefieldashavingmovedovertime丘om a microtoa macro

Focus, They

 

maintain

 

that

 

large‐scale

 

techniques

 

haVe

 

always been

 

part

 

ofthe

 

OD

approachandthat“ODershaveastrongtendencytoneglecttheirpast
”(()olembiewski,

1999,p,5).otherssuchasHerman(2000)maintainthatbecauseoftheneed 危r more

rapidresponses,systemwideculturechangeprogramsarelessrelevanttodaythan more

speciFic,situationalinterVentions

 

such

 

as

 

Virtualteam building and

 

management

 

of

宜lergerprocesses,

  

AJignedwiththiscritiqueistheissueoFthe熊asibilityofsystemwidechangesinan

era when“[t]heoldmode1oftheorganizationasthecenteroFitsuniverse,withitscus‐

tomers,share‐owners,suppliers,etc.rotatingaroundit,isnolongerapplicablein‘new‐era’

organization (Herman,2000,p.110),Asone OD practitionerargues,
“rm notsurethat

‘system widechangeisrea且ypossible,sincetherealsystem ofteninclude[s]anumber

oFstrategic

 

partners who may neverbuyinto

 

changesthatfitone company but not

anothe (citedinHerman,2000,p.109).

  

However,

others

 

disagree,For OD

 

consultant Susan Hoberecht

 

and hercolleagues

(2011),theincreasing centrality ofinterorganizationalalliances and networksinthe

JorgensonandSteier(2013)

boardmembersagreedwithonecolーeague’senthu-

siasticresponsethat”thiswasthefirsttimeinalong

timethatwereallytalkedtoeachother“andthat

”maybethisiswhataboard meetin9Cou/dbellke,

an

other

 

respondedrather

 

ambiguous-y,
“Y;es,this

hasbeengreatbutnowlet’sgetdowntobusiness”

(JorgensonandSteier,2013,p.396),Forsomepeo-

pie,anexperience-ikeVVoridCafeopensupanew

setofpossibilitiesastohowtheycould workwith

eachotherinthefuture;forothersitisdismissedas

a(possiblyinteresting)diversionbeforetheyreturn

to“businessasusual.

   

                                       

ChaPter9

 

0′耳ロ′7′zq“o′7Del’e/oP′77e′””′7dSe′7se‐虜毎膚′?gえ口Proαじ方搭

 

293

                 

business

 

world Provides

 

an oPPortunityfor

 

change methods With

 

asystemWide 化)Cus

              

becauseinsuch anenviion立lentagreaterthaneverPremiumisP1acedonthee鎖ective

           

oPeratingofinterdePendencies.lnsuch an environment, Hoberechtetal.(2011)argue,

                   

large‐scaleinterventionshaveParticularrelevance.

                     

Foran e]mーPirical.ybasedassessmentofVariousasPectsoftheeaヨectivenessoflarge-

           

scaleinterventions,seeWorleyetal.(2011).

圃圏 Appreciativelnquiry(AD

Techniques of“inclusion” aPProPriatetolarge‐scale orlarge-grouPinterventiontech‐

niquesledtothem beinglabeledaspartofa new ”engagementParadigm”(AXelrod,
2001,P.25),a“new typeofsocialinnovation“(Bunkerand A1ban,1992,p.473),a

Paradigmshir (DannemillerandJacobs,1992,p.497),and“anevolutioninhuman

thought,

vision

 

and values

 

uniquely

 

suited

 

to

 

our

 

awesome

 

21st

 

Centurytechnical,

economic,andsocialdilemmas”(weisbord,1992b,P.6).TheyrePresentedashi代from

the

 

emphasis

 

on

 

Problem-solving

 

and

 

conflict

 

management,common to earlier

 

OD

programs,to aFocusonjointenvisioningofthefuture.Forexample,Fuller, Griぜin,

andLudema(2000,P.31)maintainthatWithaproblem‐solvingapProachcomesthe

assumptionthat“organizing‐is‐a‐problem-to‐be‐solved,
” ○nethatentailsstePssuch as

problem

 

identification, analysis

 

ofcauses

 

and

 

solutions, and the

 

development

 

of

action plans,

 

Contrarytothislogic,Fulleretal.(2000)pointtotheassumptionsunderlyingthe

APPreciativelnquiry(AI)apProachtochange,whichseekstoidenti~ whatiscurrently

worldngbestandtobuildonthiskロowledgetohelpdevelopand design Whatmightbe

achievedinthefuture.Theyoutlinethetechniqueasinvolving缶urstePs:

・ 上)為のyermgorapPreciatingthebestofwhatiscurrentlypracticed.

・ &厳粛〃gonthis]超owledgetoheIPenvision(ordream)aboutWhatthefuturecouldbe,

・ Des!g形刀gorco‐constructing(throughcollectivedialogue)Whatshouldbe,

. &姻ねZm乃gtheorganization
’sdestinyorfuture.

  

ThetechniqueisalsodepicteddiagrammaticallyinFigure9.1.AねinustrativesamP1e

ofquestions食)rthis化’ur‐stepprocessisprovidedintable9.5,

  

lnthesetechniquestheactofParticiPation orinclusionofa widevariety ofvoices

itselfconstitutesachangeintheorganization.The”what”tochangeandthe“how”to

changecannotbeeasilyseparated.

 

lntheiroutlineofthebene負tsofAPPreciativelnqu江y,Fu且eretal.(2000,P.31)claim

thatit“releasesan outPouringofnew constructiveconversations,
““unleashesaself

sustaininglearningcapacity withintheorganization,
”“createstheconditionsnecessary

貴)rselforganizingtoflourish,
“and“

Providesareservoirofstrength貴)rPositivechange.

Thesearenot minorclaims. Certainly,thetechniqueshavebeenrePortedly usedsuc‐

cess鏡1lyin avarietyoforganizationalsettings(Weisbord,1999b).However,whether

these

 

aPProaches

 

are

 

successfu1in

 

achievingtheiroutcomes

 

is

 

diぜicu1tto

 

estab1ish,

beingbased mosto賃en ontheassertionsoftheirproponentsratherthan onrigorous

researchevidence.

294

 

ChaPter9

 

0増の7鳶α!わ′7Del’eわP′77g川口′7dSe′7se-脳劣αた′′7g月βProαc方es

FIGURE9i
Appreciative
lnquiry4-D

Cycle

A爺rmor′VetoP′C

  

choにe

ReprintedWithpermissionofthepublisher.FromAppreciatiVelnquiry,Copyright2007by
Cooperrider/Whitney,Berrett‐KoehlerPublishers,lnc,,SanFrancisco,CA,川lrightsreserved,

TABLE9.5
AぬmustrativeSampleofAppreciativelnquiry

Questions

Thefo=owingquestionswerepartofanAI-basedoDengagementthatconsultantMeghanaRao(2014,
p.81)carriedoutinaU,S.socialservicesagency.

Stage

       

Questions

D′scove”ng

   

“Describeatimewhenyouweremostproudtobeamemberofyourorganization,仇′hat

           

wasthesituation?ぬ′howasinvolved?戦′hatmadeitaproud moment?”

Dreom

      

‘‘lmagineyourselfandyourorganizationhavebeenfast‐forwardedbyfiveyears.W′hat

           

doyouseearoundyou?仇′hatdoesthestructurelooklike?Howhavedientsbeen

          

created,retained,andexpanded?“

Des′gn

       

”W′hatwillyouridealorganizationalstructurelooklike?--people,systems?.” 恥′hat

          

structuresneedtobeinplacefortheorganizationtosustainandemployeestoflourish?”

Desr′ny

      

“W′hataretheactionitemsthatweneedtocovertocreatetheorganizationofthe

           

future?W′hatadditionalresourceswiーlbeneeded?“

RoadwayExpress,aNorthAmerican

 

industria曇and

   

capabilitiesforsustainedeconomicperf。rrnance.ーn
commercialtransportationcompany,adoptedanAp‐

  

whatwascal-edtheBreakthrough

 

LeadershipPro-

preciativelnquiryapproachtochangeitscultureand

   

gram,150

 

RoadwayExpress

 

leaderswentthrough

management,VV。rking with

 

CaseVVestern

 

Reserve

   

persona-

 

discoveryexercisesinvolving

 

deve-○pin9
University,thecompanyembarked。namajorlead‐

  

personal

 

vision

 

statements,identifying personal

ership‐training

 

program

 

to

 

deveーop

 

ski=s

 

and

   

strengths

 

and

 

weaknesses,developing

 

personal

ChaPter9

 

0′8の7迄猫′o″Dew/o脚打e旧館7dSe′7s抄八メロ膚′7g月口夢中qc方es

 

295

learnlngplanS,andexperimentingWiththeSebackin

theworksetting.Executivecoachesservedtofacili-

tatetheseProcesses.

  

ln

 

the

 

next

 

phase,David

 

Cooperrider,

who

 

co-

founded Appreciative

 

lnquiry,worked withthem

 

in

convenlng summits(1arge 9roup meetings),

each

heldovertwodaysandconsistingofacrosssection

ofstakeholders(customers,sta什,suppーiers,andoth-

ers).Theaim ofthesesummitswastoidentifywhat

the“ideal”wasfortheorganizationinrelationtoa

varietyofbusinessissues,Eachsummitwentthrough

thefourA1stages(discovew,dreaming,designing,

andde-ivering)tofaciーitatecooperationandcolーabo‐

ration

 

throughoutthe

 

organization,From

 

2000

 

to

2004,8,00ORoadwayPeopleexperiencedthispro-

cesswithover70summitsbeingheldinthistime.At

theendofeachsummit,inwhatwasreferredtoas

the“openmicrophone“segment,panicipants”pub-

ーicーypledgedtheircommitmenttoeachotherto

see

thechangesembodiedintheactionplansthroughto

completioげ(Vanoosten,2006,P,712),

Vanoosten(2006)

[両面司 Positive organizationaIScholarshiP(POS)

Dubbedasa“new movementinorganizationalscience,
”Positive organization‐aIScholar‐

ship(Pos)isanumbrellatermthatemergedintheearly200ostoencompassapproaches
such as Appreciativelnquiryandothers,includingpositivepsychologyand com・nunity

psychology(CameronandCaza,2004,p.731).POSdevelopedoutofaviewthatあrmost

ofthehistoryofoD,attentionhadmainlybeenpaidtoidenti夢inginstancesof“negatively

motivated change”(orproblems)in organizationsand designing change programsto

eliminatethem(CameronandMcNaughtan,2014).Followingthislineofargument,think

ingaboutthepositive

 

aspects

 

oforganizationallifヒーandbuildingchangeprogramsto

spreadtheseaspectselsewherein organizations--hasbeenrelativelyneglected.

 

丁lotakeaPosperspectiveinvolveswhatoneofits化〉unders,K1m Cameron,describes

as“fburconnotation (Cameronand McNaughtan,2014,p.447):

1,
‘Adoptingapositivelensrwhichmeansthatwhetheroneisdealingwithcelebrations/

 

successesoradversity/problems,the節cusison 筆fegivingelements.

2.
“Focusingonpositivelydeviantperた)rmance,

”which meansinvestigatingoutcomesthat

  

arewellinexcessofany normallyexpected perlt)rmance,thatis,outcomesthatare

  

spectacular,surprlslng,orextraordinary.

3.
”ぬ」ssumingan a日Firmative bias”involvesholdingtheview thatpositivitygeneratesin

  

individuals,groups,andorganizationsthecapacity化)rgreaterachievements.

4.
“Examining virtuousness”involves

 

assumingthatall“human

 

systems” areinclined

  

toward“thehighestaspirationsofman娘nd.

 

lnlinewiththecoaching metaphor,POScanbedepictedascoaching

organizations

toidentifytheit”bestplays,
”tounderstandthebehaviorsanddynamicsunderlyingthem,

and then

 

to

 

work out how to

 

spread them to

 

other parts

 

oftheir“game”(the

organization).

 

POS hashaditscritics.Fineman(2006,pp.270‐73)raisesfourissuesthatquestion

whetherPOScanreallyliveuptoits“
positive

”alnコs.First,hequestionswhetherwecanreally

agreeonwhichbehaviorsare”
positive.

“W/hatpasses危rbeimgpositivewinvaryindiflerent

296

 

ChaPter9

 

0増o′7′zq〃○〃上〉eye加野′77emα〃dSe′7s 脳超膚′7g月口Proqc方榔

         

enviromments.Fore×amP1e, 血 review血ganumberofresearchsmdies,hePojmtsout

how

         

‘“courageous,
’‘principled’corporatewhistle‐blowersarealsoreadilyregardedastraitors,reneg‐

       

        

ngontheunspokencorporatecode(‘viftue’)toneverwashone’sd立ty 血eninpub=c,

         

Second,he(2006,pp,274‐75)questionswhetherthepositivecanbeseparated丑omthe

         

negativeor whethertheyarereally
“twosidesofthesamecoin,inextricablyweldedand

       

mutuanyrein危rcing,
“ Forexample:

“Happiness maytriggerah騨dety(‘win my happiness

       

last?’).Lovecanbemixedwithbitternessandjealousy,山□gercan 元elenerglzlngandexcit-

         

          

ng.
“By あcusing on positiveexperiences,he maintains,approachessuch as Appreciative

         

lnquiry魚il“tovaluetheopportunitiesfbrpositivechangethatarepossible丘om

negative

         

e×periences,suchasembarrassingevents,periodsofanger,a鳶口ety,fear,orshame.

         

Third,he(2006,p,276)pointsto how whatareregarded aspositivebehaviorsand

        

emotionsdi鐘er,notjustindi掻erentorganizationalenvironmentsbutalsoacrossdi鎖erent

       

culturalenvironments,Drawingontheworkofwritersonculture,hepointsouthow“[e]

        

茸usivehope,anenerg・zlngemotioninthe駅/est,isnotasentimentorterm prevalentin

        

culturesandsub‐culturesinfluencedbyConfucianism andBuddhism.

         

Fourth,he(2006,p.281)suggeststhatthereis“anunarticulateddarksidetopositiveness,

        

Thisoccurswherethereisalackofrecognitionthattherearediflerentinterestsinorganiza-

        

tionsandthatnotaupeop1erespondWeutoso‐canedpositiveprograms]駄eempowerment

        

andemotionalmtemgenceorpracticesthatimposea“cultureoffun”mtheworkplace.

These

        

programs“haveam‐医edoruncertainrecord,andsomecanproducetheveryoppositeofthe

       

selfactuaロzationand員berationtheyseer(Fineman,2006,p.281),

          

lnresponsetothesecriticisms,de免ndersofPOSarguethattheilperspectivecomple-

        

mentsandexpandsratherthanreplacestheperspectiveofthosewho‘‘onlywrestlewiththe

       

questionofwharswrongin organizations”(Roberts,2006,p,294),lndeed,thosewhose

        

          

bcusisonthelatterquestion
“mayinadvertentlyignoretheareasofhumannourishingthat

         

e副iven andcontributevalueto organizations,eveninthe 魚ceofsignificanthuman and

       

structuralchauenges
“(Roberts,2006,p.295).Posispresentedas“concernedwithunder

         

standingthemtegrationofpositiveandnegativeconditions,notmerelywithanabsenceof

       

thenegative
”(Cameron and Caza,2004,p.732).Ratherthanassumethatthereare

no

          

umversallypositivev立tues,thetaskofP0sisto“discovertheextenttowhichv立tuesand

       

goodnessareculturauyin”uenced(Roberts,2006,p.298).Roberts(2006)suggeststhat

           

criticism ofp〇S maybeduetoacombj比ーationofthecriticsnotwantingtostepoutsideof

        

theircom云ortzone-anapproachto managingchangethatisあcusedonident的mgproblems-

         

andlackofconsideration貴)rtherelative出稼ncyofPOSasanareaofpractice,

             

Vvheredoesthisleavethe managerofchange? ontheoneside,proponentsofpO

            

wishto change organizations with“animplicitdesireto enhancethequalityoflif宅貴)r

       

individualswho workwithinandareafFectedbyorganizations“(Roberts,2006,p,294).

           

0ntheothersidearecriticalscholarswhodonotlayoutanalternativecalltoaction貴)r

           

agentsofchangeso muchascautionthemiftheyassumethattheywillbesuccessfulin

           

the立”
positive“ventures.lnstead,thecriticsofPOSurgePOSadvocatestorecognizehow

       

underlyingpowerrelationshipsandinterestsinorganizations(andbeyond)willlimittheir

            

actions;theyalsoareurgedtorecognizethatwhatpassesasbeingpositivewillvaryin

            

difヂerentcontextsandmaynotbesharedbyall,However,suchcriticalreflectionsdonot

         

seem to

have

 

dented,in any signi賃cant way,theincreasing momentumthatthe

 

POS

         

movementhasgained,atleastinNorthArnerica.W′hetheritachievesthesamemomen‐

         

tum outsideoftheUnitedStatesremainstobeseen.

ChaPter9

 

0増mdzα“の?上}のぞめ鰯??emの7dSの7sgみdq膚′増月口ProQc力es

 

297

 

Cameronand MCNaughtan(2014,P,456)reVisitthefindingsofadecadeofaPP且cation

ofPOSideastoorganizationalchangecoveringsuchvariablesasv立tuousPractices(e.g.,
compassion),humanistic values,the meaning短lness ofwork,high-qualityinterpersonal

communication,hoPe,energy,andselfe茸icacy.Theysummarizetheresultsas“Provid【ingl
supportfbrthebenefitsofpositivechangePracticesinreal-world worksettings.

” Quinn
and Cameron(2019)provideasummary,descriPtion,and discussionofpos’distinctive
apProachtoorganizationalchange.

圏麗璽

 

Dialogic organization DeveloPment

AsOD develoPedthroughitsvarious mani免stations,suchasLarge GrouPlnterventions

and Appreciativelnquiry,it was moving moreand moreaway丘omtheclassic,diagno‐

si driven,aPProachto oD(asdescribedintheinitialsectionsofthischaPter).Gervase

BusheandBob Marshak(2009)characterizedthischangebycontrastingthetraditional
”DiagnosticOD”withwhattheydescribedas“DialogicOD.

 

Busheand Marshak(2009)contrastthecharacteristicsofDiagnosticandDialogicOD.
Wrhereastraditional,orDiagnostic,ODemPhasizesthatanyproblemrequir宣1gchange

could

beaddressedbyf立stapP1yingano団ectivediagnosisofthecircumstancesofthesituation,
DialogicODtreatsrealityassu覇ectivesothatthepriority minterveninginanorganization

wastoidenti8randackdlowledgedi掻erentstakeholders’interpretationsofwhat節rthem

was

“rea亘ty.

”lnParallelwiththis,theroleoftheODconsultantmoved丘om beingtheProvider

ofdata食)r魚ct‐drivendecision ma姫ngtobeingthe魚c江itatorofprocessesthat

encouraged

”conversations”aroundchangeissues(Marshak,2013;BusheandMarshak,2015)(seethe
box“FromtheoriginatorsofDialogicOD,GervaseBusheandBobMarshar).

By2005eachofushadseparatelyconc-udedthat

variousODchange

 

methodswerebeing

 

practiced

thatdidn’tfollowthebasicorthodoxiesfoundinOD

textbooks.Aーthough

 

we

 

didn’t

 

realーy know

 

each

otheratthattime,wedecidedtocollaborateonde-
finingthe

 

premises

 

and

 

practiceswebeーieved

 

un-

der-ay

 

approaches

 

as

 

disparate

 

as open

 

space

下echnology,Appreciative

 

lnquiry,and

 

the

 

Art

 

of

Hosting,tonameafew,-na2009articleweorlg--

natedthenameandconceptof”DialogicOD,
“based

ontheprinciplethatchangecomesfrom changing

everydayconversations

 

and

 

contrasted

 

itwiththe

foundationalformof○Dwenamed”DiagnosticODP

 

Laterweaniculated

 

keyideasderivedfromthe

interpretive

 

and

 

complexitysciencesthatleadtoa

DialogicODMindsetandthe”secretsauce”ofingre-
dientsthatincombinationproducetransformationai

change.Thoseingredients,occurringin

 

no

specific

order,include:disruptionofongoingpatternsofso‐

cialagreementsuchthattheemergenceofnewpat-

ternsoforganizingbecomepossible;introductionof

a”generativeimage,
“forexamples”sro/“ob′edeV1e/-

opme“もthatstimulatesnewthinkingandpossibili‐

tiesnotpreviouslyconsidered;anddevelopmentof

new narrativesthatbecomepartoftheday‐to‐day

conversationsthatguidehow organizationalactors

thinkaboutandrespondtosituations.

  

VVebelieveDialogicODisespeciaー-ye行ectiveina

VUCA【Volatility,uncertainty,complexity,ambiguity]

world

 

ofcontinualchange.Giventhoseconditions,

「Com′nueの

298

 

ChaPter9

 

0増α′7′zq”○〃 )el’e/○野川e′7!”′7dSe′7sgゐ仏αた′′7g月PProdcみes

insteadoftryingtocontroltheuncontrollable,Dia-

ーogic

 

OD

 

asks

 

leaders

 

to

 

enrich

 

stakeholder

 

net-

works,promote

 

open-ended

 

inquiry and

 

support

groups

 

that

 

self‐generate small

 

experiments

 

that

challengeconventionalwisdomandmayーeadtonew

outcomesnotpreviouslyconsidered,Leadersstay
invoーved

 

by

 

amplifying

 

and

 

embedding

 

new

 

ideas

and

 

practicesthatwork,ln

 

brief,leaders

 

become

 

Centraltothe DialogicOD approachistheviewthat“realchange
’’onlyoccurs

when

m加ーdsetsarealteredandthatthisismーorelikelytooccurthrough

generativeconversations”

thanPersuasionby”魚cts,
”Aユtered口lin‐dsetsarerePresentedbychangesattheleveloflan-

guageandassociatedchangesatthelevelofactionstakenbyorgalはization members.

This

changedapproachisalsoassociatedwithmoves丘om(1)seeingchangeasarelative夢 ma企

ageable,P1annable,UillearProcesstoonethatcouldbeunPredictablewith魚r丘om predictable

moves丘omdiagnosistooutcomesand(2)“theshi童丘omf鎚mgaProblemtocultivatinga

system capableofaddressingitsownchauenges”(Holman,2013,P.20)(seetable9,6).

 

ASOD continuestoevolve,itremainsa maior
“schoolofthought

“asto how organi-

zationalchangeshouldbe managed.AJthough debateseXistasto what貴)rm ofODis

optmlal,貿ラnkasi(2018,P,67)arguesthevirtuesofOD as 危1lows:

Theideaoftopdowncentralisedchangeleadershipisbecoming moreand moreobsolete

aswedevolve丘om monolithicorganizationalstructurestonimbleandagiledecentralised

structures.Theneedofthehourisinvolvingcommunitiesofstakeholders,empowerment

acrossabroadswathoftheorganization,and態CilitatingPoly‐vocalconversationstodeter-

minethescopeandtheprocessofchange.

TABLE9.6
HowDialogicODandDiagnosticODAreDif発rent:BaseAssumptions

              

DialogicOD DiagnosticOD

什owlわeODprodだ′oner

 

W′orkingWithPeoP1einaWaythat

    

Carryingoutdiagnosisofthe

中f7uencesrわe

        

createsnewawareness,knoW1edge,

  

organiZationalsituationbefore

orgdn′zo”on

        

andpossibilities intervening

W物ofimo火esc力onge

   

EngagingwithstakeholdersinWays

   

APP1yingknownexPertisetoidentify,
hoppen?

           

thatdisruptandshiftexistingpatterns

  

p-an,andmanagethechangeina

               

ofnorms,beliefsandbehaviorsleading

 

systematicunfreeze‐change-refreeze

              

totheemergenceofneWpossibilities sequence

              

andassociatedcommitments

Zわeconsu′ton『お

      

AsaninvolvedfacilitatorWhobecomes

 

Asaneutralfacilitato「whoretainsa

o“en『of′on

         

partofthesituationbeingchanged

    

separatenessanddistancefromthose

                                       

beingaffected

PrivatecorresPondencefrom Bob Marshaktothe

  

authors,Marchll,2015,

sponsorsandframersofdialogicprocessesthatstim-

ulateinnovationandinvention,ratherthantryingto

maintainilーusorycontroーasdirectorsormanagersof

plannedchange,

Source:AdaPtedfromMarshak,R.J.2015.MyjoumeyintoDialogicorganizationdeveloPmem.ODPmαmo〃er47(2):4 52(丘omtablel,P.48).

ChaPter9

 

0増の7な倣わ〃上杉1’do脚778′7rq′7dsの7se-山名α膚′堰月ゑProαc角郎

 

299

 

However,nota旦 OD Practitioners aresurethata move官om tDiagnosticl OD to

DialogicODissu茸icienttoPosition OD OPtilnaily食)rbeingableto haveaninnuenCe

onhowchangeinorganizationsis managed.Forexample,both Worley(2014)andBar

tunek and Woodman(2015)arguethatthediagnostic‐dialogicdichotomyisunhelp範l

andthat”Weshouldbeta”dngaboutWhetheracomPrehensiveandsystematicdiagnostic

ODcanbeintegratedwithareallygooddialogicODtocreateapowerfulchange

process

(Worley,2014,p.70).For Worley(2014,p.70),thedialogic-diagnosticあcusplacestoo

muchattentionon“ODasProcess

;hearguesthat賞)rOD”tocaptureitsfulIPotential

practitioners mustcomplementtheirprocessskillswithskillsandknowledge“relatedto

theprinciP1esand 丘ameworksofstrategyandorganization design.

Aspartofachangethatinvolvedtheimpーementation

ofanewcustomerrelationship management(CRM)

system,theemployeesofafinancialservicesorgani-

zationwereaskedtorequestcustomerstomakean

appointmentatwhichtheirfinancialsituation

wouーd

bereviewedfreeofcharge.Emp1oyeeswereto

make

this

 

requestduringthecourse

 

ofregularover‐the-

countertransactions.However,thetargetednumber

ofappointmentswasnotbeing

 

reached,and

 

itap‐

pearedthatthe

 

barrierwasemployees

 

notfeeling
confidentaboutmakingtherequiredapproach.

 

lnresponsethefinancia-institutionarrangedfora

theatrecompanytocraftandpresentaplaythatilーus-

tratedtheconversationsandinteractionsinvo1vedin

the

 

interface

 

between

 

customerand

 

employee.A

ha-f-daytheatre

 

workshop

 

wasthen

 

conducted

 

in

which

 

participating

 

empーoyees wereinvitedto

 

ask

questionsoftheactorsandtosuggestchangesto

thescripttomaketheplaymore”realisticrAsecond

workshopfollowedatwhichemployeesvoーunteered

scenariosthatwouldmaketheplayevenmoretypi-

caーofthecustomerinterfacesituationsinwhichthey
wereinvolved.Theemployeesthenjoinedthethe‐

atreactorsinactingoutthero1esintheevolvedscript.
Fo=owingtheworkshops,acoーlectivediscussiontook

placeonproactivecustomerconversations.

  

Measuresmadefo1ーowingemployeeparticipation
inthetheatreprocessshowedasignificantimprove‐

mentin

 

both

 

self‐efficacy

 

beliefs

 

andtask

 

perfor‐

mancecomparedtoa

 

controlgroupofemployees

whodidnotparticipateinthetheatre.

Badhametal.(2015)

MichaeI

 

Beer,ProfessorEmeritusatHBs

 

and

 

co-
founder

 

of

 

consulting

 

firm

 

TruePoint

 

Partners

reflectingon50yearsinOD(Beer,2014)-arguesthat

ODisatacrossroadsintermsofitsabilitytobeinflu-

entia-,AccordingtoBeer,evenifanoDengagement

directlyinvolvesjustoneofthefollowingprocesses,
theODpractitionermustconsiderhowwhattheyare

doingwi1lenhanceallthreeofthefollowin9:

1, Performonce

 

口/′gnme〃↑. High

 

performance

 

that

 

flows

 

from

 

the

 

organization’s

 

design,

  

processes,andcapabilitiesbeingaligned with

 

itsstrategy

2.Psycho/og′co/

 

o″gnment

 

The commitment

 

of

  

peoplethatfoーlowsfromalignmentbetweenthe

  

organization’scultureandhumanisticva-ues

3, copαc′ry六or/eorn′〃gondchonge・Theorganiza-

  

tionsupporting,onanongoingbasis,honestcon-

  

versationsonanymattersthatinhibitthefirsttwo

  

itemsintheーist.

300

 

ChaPter9

 

0増の7′zのめ′7)eye/○野77g″rq′7dSの7se粥毎膚′7g月PProqc/だs

 

1. Lawenforcement

pyle,B,S,,andCangemi,J.2019.

organizational

changeinlawenforcement:Community‐oriented

poーicingastransformationaーleadership,orgo〃′-

zor′onpeve/opmem」oumo/(Winter81‐88,

2. HospitaI

  

Kamolsiri,P,,下ayko,P,R,M,,and Mu=in,V,2018,

 

TheimpactofoDinterventionsonhigh‐perform-

 

ing

 

teams

 

in

 

hospitals.

orgon′zo”on

 

Deve/op-

 

menモノou「no/(Summer):51‐74.

3.Smalltomediumenterprises

Stewart,S,,andGapp,R,2017,Thero-eoforgan--

zational

 

developmentin

 

understanding

 

leader-

shiptoachievesustainabilitypracticesinsmallto

medium enterprises,orgon′zo“onDeve/opmenr

ノoumo′{Summer):33-57.

4. Mediaorganization

 

Birmingham, C.2012, HOW

 

OD principles

 

of

 

changestillmatterinanimpossiblesituation,OD

 

P「ocf′r′one「44(4):61-64.

園璽震園 Sense‐Makin9

AsdiscussedinchaPter2 he〃7zemreZerimageemPhasizestheroleofthechange

man-

ager

 

as

 

a“

manager

 

of

meaning


;thatis,it

 

emphasizesthat

 

acore

 

skillofa change

manageristhecapacityto 丘ame meaning 免rthoseinvolved.Timesofchangecanbe

confusingtothosea鈷ected,andakeyelementofwhatchangemanagersdothroughtheir

variousactionsand communicationslsconveyasenseof‘‘what’sgolngon.
” organiza-

tionalchangeis

 

a processthatis

 


problematic“interms

 

ofits

 

outcomes

 

”becauseit

underminesandchallenges[People’s]existingschemata,whichserveastheinterpretive

丘amesofre発rencethrough whichto makesenseoftheworlず (Lockettetalり2014),

 

Changeoften meansthattheleadersofan organizationareseekingtotakeitina

significantlynew directionand/ortohavetheorganization 範nctioninasignificantly
diぼerent manner.Todoso,thesense‐making processislikelytoinvolveasequence

that Mantereandcolleagues(2012)describeasbeginning with “sensebreaking
”(as

theleaderschallengetheappropriatenessofthestatusquo),あ1lowedby

sense-giving

(their

 

attemptsto

 

reshape people
’s understandings

 

ofthe

 

direction they should

beheading),

  

M[anagerslackingselfawarenesswillo賃enconveya messagethatisotherthanthey

would

 

intend.People

 

in

 

organizations

 

interpret

managers

’actions

 

sy]mlbolically,and,

TheU.S.Army
Koknke,A,,andGonda,T,2013,Creatingacol-

laborativevirtualcommandcentreamongfour

separate

 

organizations

 

in

 

the United

 

States

Army.

 

orgon′zot′on

 

peve′opmenモ

 

ノourno/

(Winter):75-92,

Nonprofitorganizations

Gratton,P.C.2018,organizationDevelopment

andstrategicplanningfornon‐profitorganiza-

tions.

 

orgon′zo”on

 

Deve′opmenモ

 

ノourno/

(Summer):27-38,

Mergersand

acquisitions

Marks,M.L.,andMirvis,P.H,2012.ApplyingOD

to

 

make mergers

 

and

 

acquisitions

 

work, OD

P「ocm′one「44(3):5-12,

8. China

Tang,Y.2018.TheoryS:A Chinesetransforma-

tive

 

ODframework.orgonizof′on Deve/opmenf

」omno′(Winter):77-98.

                      

ChaPter9

 

0増αmzα『め″上)eve/o顎77の?rq′7dSe′7s 粥超殻′増月口Proα欲es

 

301

Particulady where 食)rlnal

 

co]mmLunicationsleave

 

ambiguity,suchinterPretations

will

fill

 

the “meanmg

 

gaP,
” Good

 

change

 

managers

 

are

 

likely to

 

have

 

 

high level

 

of

selfawarenessandrecognizethattheircapacitytoprovideanarrativealongthelines
of”what’sgoingon‐and Why?

“-thatis,actingasaninterPreter-can meetaneed・Vvhat
isatstake,accordingtolveroth and Hallencreutz(2015,P.3),isthatsensemakingis
centraltocreating

”thenecessaryawareness,understandingandwilIPowerneededtomake
peoplechange,

  

Drawing onthe/“だめreZerimageofmanaging organizationalchange,KarIVVeick’s
(2000; WeicketaL,2005)sensemaking modelprovidesan alternative apProachto

the ODschool.Weicks(2000)PointofdePartureisto argueagainstthreecommon
changeassumPtions.

 

Thefirstisthe αssm“prわ〃 ザ!粥川α. Underthisassumption, P1anned,intended

change

 

is

 

necessaryto

 

disruPtthe食)rcesthat

 

contribute

 

to

 

alack

 

ofchange

 

in

 

an

organization sothatthereis

 

alagbetween

 

environmentalchange and organizational

adaPtation. HesuggeststhatthecentralrolegiventoinertiaismisP1acedand

results

丘om aFocusonstructureratherthan a 化)cusonthestructuringflowsand Processes

throughwhichorganizationalworkoccurs.AdoptingthelatterPersPectiveleadsoneto

seeorganizationsasbeinginan ongoingstateofaccomP1ishmentandreaccomplish‐

mentwithorganizationalroutinesconstantlyundergoingadjustmentstobetterfitchang‐

ingcircumstances.

 

Thesecond 餌sm“夢”o“な豹のα蹄q“〆α′α彰edc方α“81ePrりgm′?2Zs“蛇ded However,Veick

(2000)saysthatthisassumPtionisof旗Pitedvaluebecauseit魚江stoactivateWhatheregards

asthe化’urdriversoforganizationalchange.AsoutbLnedinchaPter2,thesedriversare:

・ 4〃卿のめ〃, WherebyPeoP1e remainin motion and mayexPeriment,e.g., withjob

 

descriPtions

・ Z)Zredzo〃.lncludingbeingabletoimP1ement,innovelways,directedstrategies

・ 月ロメ′ば α『ze〃『わ〃 α〃dz‘〃〆の/〃g.Such asuPdatingknowledgeoftheenvironmentand

 

reviewingandrewritingorganizationalrequirements

・ Re切ec抗え cα〃dZdZ〃Zem”わ〃. occurs when PeoP1eareencouragedtosPeak outand

 

engageindialogue,Particularly whenthingsarenotworkingwelI

 

These

 

drivers

 

emerge

 

 

rom

 

 

sense-making

 

PersPective

 

that

 

assumes “that

 

change

engagese鎖ortsto makesense ofeventsthatdon’tfittogether”(weick,2000,P.232).
For Weick,mostProgrammedorintentionalchanges態iltoactivateoneormoreofthese

sense‐makingforcesthatassistindividualsin managingambiguity.

 

Thethird msm“pzわ〃ZSZぬ班 Qfz‘淫行雀躍78 mosto賃en associated with Kurt Lewin’s

un丘eezing‐changing‐re官eezing

 

change 危rmula. Un丘eezingisbased

 

on the view that

organizationssufier丘ominertiaandneedtobe“unfrozen.
” However,

“ifchangeiscon-

tinuousandemergent,thenthesystemisalreadyun丘ozen.Furthere強ortsatunをeezing

could

 

disruPt whatis

 

essentially

 

a comP1ex adaPtive

 

system thatis

 

already working

(weick,200Q P,235)・1fthereisdeemedtobeineぼectivenessinthesystem,thenhis

Positionisthatthebestchangesequenceisas危1lows:

・ Ereeze.Tbshow WhatisoccurringinthewaythingsarecurrentlyadaPting
・ Rebα超刀ce.ToremoveblockagesintheadaPtiveProcesses

・ けがreeze.℃○enable 和rtheremergentandimprovisationalchangestooccur

302

 

ChaPter9

 

0増の7izdr′○〃上)eye/○功77e′7rq′7αSe′7seadq膚′7g月口Proqc/?es

             

lnthisview oforganizationalchange,changeagentsarethose who arebestableto

        

identiルhowadaptiveemergentchangesarecurrentlyoccurring,muchofwhicho宣enare

            

dismissedasnoiseinthesystem.

             

AsnotedinchaPter2,官omasense‐maidLngperspective,itisuPto managersofchange

             

“toauthorinterpretationsandlabelsthatcapturethepatternsinthoseadaptivechoices

       

[andlwithinthe丘ameworkofsensemaking, managementsees whatthe丑ontlinesays

       

andtellstheworldwhatitmeans“(weick,2000,p.238).Sensema頒ngis“asocialpro-

            

cessofmeaning construction andreconstructionthrough which managersunderstand,

            

interpret,and

 

create

 

sense 食)rthemselves

 

and

 

others

 

oftheirchanging organizational

       

contextandsurroundings
”(Rouleauand Balogun,2010,p.955).

             

ln alandmarkstudyinusingandextendingthesense-ma1ローng 丘ameworktotheman-

       

agementoforganizationalchange,JeanHelmsMiUs(2003)lookedattheorganizational

           

changesat NovaScotia Power,alargeelectricalutilitycompanybasedontheeastern

         

shoreofCanada.From l982to2002,NovaScotiaPowerwentthroughavarietyofmajor

             

organizationalchanges,includi・ngtheintroduction of:

aculturalchangeProgram

privatization

downsIZ1ng

businessprocessreenglneerlng

strategicbusinessunits

balancedscorecardaccounting

 

jean HelmsMills(2003)めundthattherewereavarietyofinterpretationswithinthe

organization aboutthesechangeprograms. Drawingonthe workofWeick(2000),she

arguesthatthesedi掻eringsense‐makingactivitiesacrosstheorganization areindicative

oftheimportanceofunderstandingchangeastheaccomplishmentofongoingprocesses

formakingsenseoforganizationalevents,She uses Weicks(2000)eight免aturesofa

sense-makingframeworktoshow howtheyimpactedonunderstandingsoforganizational

changesmthecompany.Shedrawsout丘om each 危aturethej1implications云orchange

managers(seetable9.7).

 

Similarly,inastudyofdownsizinginTelenor,Norwaysmaintelecom organization,
Bean and 日amilton(2006)pointtothe wayitscorporateleadersused

sense‐making

to丘amechangestothecompanyintermsofmakingitaninnovative,flexible,learning

organization.Afterthe

 

downslz・ng, while

 

some

 

staffacceptedthe

 

corporate“align-

ment“ 丘ame,others

 

adopted an “alienated”frame, 危eling marginalizedand 免aring
fortheirjobsecurity.Theresearcherssuggestthat丘amingofchangeis丘agile,with

employees
’interpretationsofsenior managementpronouncementsvarying丘omかの〃e

v可!血筋堰(accepting)to万α〃だ かeαた粥g(chalienging).Thatis,whenthechangeman‐

ageractsas

 

aninterpreter,thereisno guaranteethatthe manager
’sinterpretations

willnotbecontested.

  

Asnotedinchapter8onthetopicofresistanceto change,peoplein organizations

canholdverystrongviewsaboutanorganizationincludingwhatit“stands貴)r“andhow

itshouldoperate,andthattheseviews(“mental models“)can makepeopleresistantto

changethattheyseeasinconsistentwiththeseviews.Aねotherwayofexpressingthissame

pointisthatpeopleinorganizationscanbedisinclinedto accept

thechange manager

’s

ChaPter9

 

orgIqmzα”α7De・’e加野me′7rの7dse′7s凡堪αね′!g自愛Prod所es

 

303

            

 
 

                   


                  

  

                   


  

 
 

    

 
 
 

                 




   

  

 

  

 

 

 

  

 

 

  

   

 
 

 

  

            


 

 

ld

 

 

  

  

    



 

 

 
 
 
 

 

 

 
 

 

 

a 

 

 

   

 

        

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

  

 

 

     

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

  

 
 
 

     

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
 

    

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 
 

 

 
 
 

    

 
 

 

 

  

 

 
 
 

 

 
 
 

    

 
 



 

    

pーehavetomak

notjustasindMd

lsisconnectedt

emSuchassup
tradeunlons.

 

toavarl

SUpenれSors,

changea

lreSpons

304

 

ChaPter9

 

0増mdz口方o′7Del’eお卵’だ′7rの可Se′7se霊蛋q膚′増月PPFDoc方釧

constructionofevents(i,e,,hisorherinterpretation).Asnotedinchapter7on change

communicationstrategies,thecommunicated messageisnotnecessarilythe messageas

understoodbythereceiver.ln regardtotheconstruction ofeventsasprovidedbythe

change manager,itisnotjustthatthere maybesome misunderstanding ofthe“story

themanagerisseekゴ鴎gtocommunicate-thestory maybeWellandtrulyunderstood-but

itmaynotbeacceptedas“the 魚ctsofthesituation,

 

Thesense‐makingapproach alertschange managerstothedi爺erent魚cetsthatinflu-

enceinterpretationsofevents,Atthesametime,itisclearthattheseinfluencesareo貴en

deeplyembeddedandlesstangiblethan aC1earsetofstepsthatcanbeFollowed,From

thisperspective,managersofchangeneedtobewhatBO1manandDeal(2017)describe

asmoreartisticthanrational,interpretingexperienceandexpressingitin危rmsthatcan

be免lt,understood,andappreciatedbyothers,

 

Change

 

managers

 

who

 

are

 

com危rtable withthese

 

concepts arelikelyto

 

findthe

sense‐making 丘ameworkofassistancetotheminexP1oringthe”tangledunderbrush”of

organizationalchange(BoimanandDeal,2017).Atthesametime,theyneedtobemind‐
fuloforganizationallimitations

 

ontheirsense-ma]口Lngabi口ties,Thispointis 窟ladeby
Balogunandjohnson(2004,p.545)intheirstudyofsense-maklngby middle managers

whenthey

questiontheextenttowhichleaderscan managethedevelopmentofchange

recipients
’schemata,particularlyinthelarger,geographicallydispersed,modularizedorga‐

nizationsweare 血creasinglyseeing.
’’

Metropolitan(apseudonym)policedepartmentbe‐

gan

 

 

change

 

processthatinvo1ved

 

an

 

organiza-

tionalrestructuringinwhichanincreasedshareof

resourceswasa-locatedtopro‐activePolicing(in-

temgencegathering)andtoa modeoforganーz

-ng

thatprioritized

 

havingthecapacitytorapidlyde-

ploy

 

police when

 

and

 

where

 

they were

 

needed.
The

 

change

 

managers’narrative

 

emphasized

 

the

importance

 

of

 

the

 

need

 

to

 

makethese

 

specific

changessothatthepolicecouldbemore”fーexible“

and

 

byso

 

doing

 

deal

 

more

 

effectively with

 

orga-

nized

 

crime,which wasdemonstrating

 

acapacity
tospeedilyform and/ordisbandcriminalteamsto

meetcurrentneeds,

  

1n

 

chapter

 

8, We

 

窟ーade

 

the

 

point

 

that

 

the

 

simple

 

dichotomy
“managers

 

lead

change,workersresistchange
”wassimplisticanddidnotserveuswellifwewished

to

 

have

 

 

deeper

 

and

 

more

 

useful

 

understanding

 

ofresistance

 

to organizational

change,AsimilarandequallysiIローplisticdichotomyissometimesapP1iedtotherole

Dunfordetal.(2013)

  

However,theframingoftheneedforchangeasa

matterofneeded

 

”flexibility“was

 

notviewedthat

way

 

by

 

many

 

ofthe

 

police

 

because

 

they

 

experi‐

encedthechangeasinvolvingtheregularturnover

insquadmembership.Thesignificanceofthisexpe-

riencewasthatconsistencyandlongevityofsquad

membershipwereseenbymanypo1iceasvitalele-

ments

 

in

 

producing

 

both deep

 

knowledge

 

about

specificareasofcrime(e,9,,armedrobbery)and

deepre1ationsoftrust(betweensquad members),
whichtheysawascentraltoeffectivePO1icing,

ChaPter9

 

0増の7鳶α“○〃上)eve/○胆??e旧館7αSの7se虜毎膚′7g月口Prodches

 

305

ofmanagersinregardtosense-makingandsense‐giving,1ntimesofchange,an‐orga-

nization’s managersarecommonlyassumedtobethesense-givers who

 

contribute.-

o賃entoa majorextent-tothesense‐makingbyemployees.However,thecategoryof

manage

 

canapplyto alargeand diversebodyofpeople, manyofwho]m are not

part

 

oftheir

 

organization’s

 

most

 

seniorleadershipteam

 

and notfullyaware

 

ofall
detailsof“what’sgo・ngon.

” Consequently,insomechangesituations,asubsetofan

organization’s managersarelikelytoseethemselvesas moreontherecelv・ngendof
change ぐchangerecipientず)thanpartoftheteam thatisthearchitectofthechange

(seethebox“Brand Corporation: Where You ‘Sit’lnfluences Your SenseMaking,
Even あrManagerず).

Brand

 

Corporation,the European

 

division

 

of

 


fast‐movingconsumer9oods(FMCG)multinationa-,
announcedthatitwasreorganizinginresponseto
decliningfinancialperformance.Salesandmarket-
ingstrategy,whichhaduptothatpointbeendeter-

mined

 

at

 

country

 

leve1, was

 

centralized

 

at

 

the
Europelevel,withotherfunctions(finance,IT,HR)
tofo1ーow.

 

Asthe

 

centraーization

 

process

 

continued,mem-
bersoftheUK managementteam

 

be9antodefine
theirsituationasonein whichtheyhad,ineffect,
become

 

middle

 

managers

 

responsibleforstrategy
implementation,aーesserstatusthantheseniorman-

agersthey

had

 

been whenthey

 

hadstrategycre-

ationauthority.Theysawtheirnewroーeasonein

whichtheywererarelyconsultedand wereonthe

recelv-ngendofdecisionsthatwerepredominantly

presentedtothemasfaitaccompli.Theseinterpre‐
tationsofthesituationwereaccompaniedandrein-
forced

 

by

 

 

view

 

thatEuropean

 

managers

 

were
largeーyinvisibーe.

  

This

 

negative

 

interpretation

 

ofthe

 

change

 

ex-

pandedtoincludethebeliefthatlocalandnationaー

knowledgeandpracticeswerebeingdevaluedand

thatthe”people‐basedvalues“theysawthemselves

aspracticingpre-changewerenotheldbythoseat

thecenter.FortheUKmanagementteamthismeant

that,inturn,thechange wasdefinedasproducing
an

 

organization

 

in which

 

people were

 

notconsid-

ered

 

to

 

be

 

important,leading

 

to

 

 

disengaged

organization.

Balogunetal.(2015)

  

lnreviewingthesense-ma糧ng 丘amework,itisclearthatitprovideslessasetof

pre-

scriptions貴)rmanagersofchangeandmoreasetofunderstandingsabouthowtoproceed.
ltacknowledgesthe messinessofchangeandacceptsthatcompetingvoices meanthat

notallintendedoutcomesarelikelytobeachieved. However,criticaltoengagingthese

competingvoicesistheabilitytoshapeandinnuencehowthey makesenseoforganiza-

tionalevents.

 

風though(asnotedearlierinthischapter)OD hasbeensu翰ecttocritiqueasithas

evolved,thisismuchlessthecase貴)rsense-ma]bLng.Forane×ception,seeSandbergand

Tsoukas(2015).

306

 

ChaPter9

 

0増ロ′7′zq〃o″Del’eわの/77g′7『”′7dSの7s抄脳αた′′増月PProdc方釧

“The office”isa

 

Nordicfirmthatbegan

 

achange

processasa

 

resultofan

 

announcedforthcoming

merger.Aspanofthechangeprocess,thetopman-

agementofTheofficeputalotofeffortintoconvinc-

-ng

 

staff

 

that

 

the current

 

organization

 

was

substantia-lyunderperforming

 

duetobeing

 

over1y

bureaucraticandasaresultfailingtobetheinnoVa-

tive

 

organization

 

that

 

itwasintended

 

to

 

be,The

strategyofThe office was

 

presented

 

bytop

 

man-

agementtostaffasoutdatedandinappropriate,

 

Thediscrediting

 

ofthecurrentarrangements

 

at

Theo作ice-asdescribedabove--providedthebasis

fo「

 

”sense‐breaking,

 

”Sense‐giving“ occurred

throughtop managementframingthe mergerasa

Wayinwhichthesta什ofThe0fficewouldbecome

partofanewandmuchhigherperformingentity,ca-

pableofoperatin9withaquality,flexibilityandlevel

ofcustomerservicethatTheofficecouldnotdeliver

ihitspresentform,Thissense‐91vlngsucceeded,and

thestaffofTheofficebou9htintothemessage.

1, Change managersshouldtrytoprovidea

 

cーear

 

narrativethatarticulatesthewhat,why,andhow

 

ofaproposedchange,

2. Humans

 

are

 

creatures

 

who

 

abhor

 

 

”mean-ng

 

vacuum”;intheabsenceofcーearcommunication,

 

theywil-drawconclusions,i.e,,attributemeaning

 

tofillthevoid,Thisissomethingthatanorganiza‐

 

tionshouldtrytoavoidatatimeofchangeasall

 

sorts

 

of

 

misconstructions

 

mighttake

 

hold

 

and

  

makechangemoredifficulttoachieve.

3,There

 

is

 

no

 

guaranteethatchange

 

managers’

  

attempts

 

atsense‐91vlng

 

will

 

besuccessful

 

as

 

organizationa-membersliveinaworldofmu1ti-

  

plenarrativesand,regardlessofauthoritystruc‐

 

tures,the

 

interpretationbeing

 

presented

 

bya

 

change

 

manager

 

need

 

not have

 

greater

Managers(incーudingthose-nachange man‐

agementrole)inanor9anizationare“interpret‐

ers“

 

whetherthey

 

like

 

it

 

or

 

not.They

 

cannot

choosetooptoutofhavingthisrole,Theironly

choice

 

is

 

how

 

consciously

 

orexplicitly

 

they

playthisrole,Managers’actionshavesymbo1ic

meaningandwillbeinterpreted(byotherorga‐

nizationalmembers)inthisway,lnthisregard

seeExercise9,4.

credibilitythan

 

other

 

narratives.For

 

example,
someorganizationsarecharacterizedbyavery

strong

 

sense

 

of

 

identity,which can

 

give

 

the
”whatwestandfor,how wedothings,whatwe

value,

 

an

 

almost

 

moral

 

qualitythatcan

 

make

organizational members

 

very

 

disinclihed

 

to
“switchnarratives.

  

Unfortunately,complicationsthenarose

 

inthe

inter‐organizational

 

negotiations,andthe

 

merger

wasabruptlycancelledlessthanaweekbeforethe

plannedmergerdate.Theoffice’stopmanagement

presentedthefai-edmergerasagoodoutcomeand

announcedthe

 

reintroduction

 

ofastrategyalmost

identicaltotheonetheyhad

 

beenfol1owingfor

loyears.Thereactionfrom Theofficestaffwas“a

sullenlackofenthusiasm“(Mantereetal.,2012,p.
186),evenasenseofbetrayal.

  

Thetopmanagementhaddonesucha9oodiob

ofsense‐breaking

 

and

 

sense-giving

 

thatthe

 

pre-

mergerversionofTheofficehadbeenreframedby

staffasnolongerappropriateoracceptable,andthis

interpretation wasnotchangedjustbecausethe

mergerhadnotproceeded.

BasedonMantereetal,(2012).

ChaPter9

 

0増α′”zq方○′7上)g1’e/○P′77e′2『α′?dSe′7se-八仏α葱′?g自愛Prodじ/7es

 

307

EXERCISE

   

Thisexercise

 

requires youto

 

interview two

 

organization Developmentpractitioners

9l

        

abouthowtheygoaboutdoing・theirwork.Compareandcontrastthemintermsofthe

只理フorな方り削

 

fo=owingissues:

豹e月mm

   

・ theirbackground

乙粥e

      

・ valuestheyespouse

翻麗覆璽

   

‐ stepstheysaytheyuseinapproachingaconsu-tingassignment

           

 

tensionstheyidentifyin workin9asanODpractitioner

           

 

theirperceptionsofthewaytheODfieldhaschangedandlike-ychangesintothefuture

          

VVhatgeneralcondusionsdoyoudraw aboutthepracticeofOD?

EXERCIS

91

EXERCISE

   

Chooseacurrentissueinyourlocaーneighborhood.Thisexercisegetsyoutofigureout

9.2

        

howyouwoulddesignalarge‐scaーechangeinterventionprograminrelationtothisissue.

Des客川“gq

  

Giveconsiderationtothefo”owingissues:

Lα増eβcde

  

 

How manypeople wouーditmakesensetoinvolve?

Czzαねge

    

‐ Whereand when wouldyouholdit?

五“zerye“zめ“

  

 

How wouldyouensurethatyouhavearepresentativecrosssampーeofrelevantpeople

             

intheroom atthesametime?VVhatdatasourceswouldyouneedtoachievethis?

欄圏麹剛

   

・ Whoarethekeydecision makersinrelationtothisissue? Whatarguments Wilー

you

             

usetogetthemtoattendthe meeting?

           

 

How willyoustructuretheagendaofthe meeting?VVhatwould

 

bethebestWayof

              

doingthissothatpeople whoattendonthatdayhaveappropriatebuy-intoit?

 

 

How wouーdyouruntheactualmeeting?

 

 

軌′hattechnology wou-dyouneedto makeitworkwell?

308 Chapter9 0増口′7izm/o′7DのぞめP′77g′7rq′7dsの7se-崩必”た′′?gゑPProロメ7es

EXERCISE

   

語「getin2019 wasoneofthelolargestretaiーersintheUnitedStates(Walmaltwasno.1),
9.4

        

butithashadtodealwithsomedifficulttimes.lnthedecadeto2014,Targersearn-ngs

上ねだりだす!“g

  

droppedfrom $3,2bi=ionto$1,5bi=ion withnetincomeasapercentageofsalessim‐

豹e

       

ilar-ydroppingfrom 4‐6 percentto 2 percentduringthisperiod.These were keye1

           

mentsofthecontextinto which

 

Brian Cornellarrivedin August2014asTarget’snew

万2Zemrerer-

   

CEO.Someoftheactionshethentookincluded:          

CZzqngeの 1. He madeanimpromptuandincognitovisittoaTargetstorein DaHastotalktocus-

tomers.Notrecognizedbystoreemployeesorcustomers,hesoughtcandidopinions

from shoppers.Thisactionbythe CE0 wasasurprisetoTargetexecutivesbecause

itwasasignificantdeparturefrom pastpractice,Priorto Cornell’sarrival,storevisits

had

 

occurred-supposedly

 

as

 

intelligence-gathering

 

exercises--butthey

 

had

 

been
”meticu-ouslyplannedaffairs,onlylessforma-than,say,apresidentialvisit“Withthe

store managersnotifiedinadvanceand“the‘regularshoppers’handpickedandvet‐

ted“(Wahba,2015,p.86).

2, WhenhefirstarrivedatTargersheadquarters(in Minneapolis),Cornellwasallocated

 

thenewlyrefurbishedcE○’ssuite,butheinsistedon movingtoasmallerofficeclose

 

toTarget’sglobaldata

 

nervecenter.Thelostaffmembersinthiscentermonitored

  

livefeedsfrom

 

socia1 media--includin9

 

Pinterest,Facebook,and

 

Twitter--andfrom

 

TV stationsto

 

-ocate

 

stories

 

and

 

information

 

on

 

product

 

launches,customer

 

com‐

  

ments,etc.Thenervecenterstaffwatchedsocial

 

mediaonlargescreensandused

  

softwaretoaggregatedataforlateranalysis.

3,

VVith

 

the

 

intention

 

of

 

putting

 

pressure

 

on

 

Amazon

 

and

 

VValmart,Corne= changed

  

Target’spolicytooneofferingfreeshippingforonlineordersduringtheholidays,a

 

”decisionthatwas

 

made

 

in

 

 

matterofdays

 

ratherthanthe

 

months

 

itwould

 

have

 

takeninthepasで(Wahba,2015,p.88).

4.ltwasnotunusua-forCornelltoaskco=eaguesabouttheir”work-life”balanceand

 

especial-ytheirworkout

 

habits.He

 

encouraged

 

colleaguestotaketimeforfitness

 

activitiesand wasn’t“thetypewhoexaltsthe machismoofoutlandishhours”(Wahba,

 

2015,p,88),

5. Corne=

 

relaxedthe company’sdresscodeand

 

ate

 

inthecompanycafe where

 

he

  

mixed withstaff.

6. He movedthecompany’srecruitmentpolicytochangethesituationfrom one where

 

Targetwas‘‘longpopulatedbylifers”toone making moreeffortto”recruitoutsiders

 

withfreshideaぎ(Wahba,2015,p,94).

Considerthe

 

proposition

 

that

 

managers’actions

 

have symbolic

 

meaning

 

and

 

wi=

 

be

       

interpreted(byotherorganizationalmembers)inthisway:

           

1,

VVhat

 

do

 

you

 

see

 

as

 

the

 

symbolism

 

associated

 

with Target

 

CEO

 

Brian

 

Corne=’s

           

actions?

           

2.lfyouhadbeenaTargetemployee,whatmightyouhaveconcludedaboutthenature

               

ofthechangehappeninginTarget?

         

Cose Source

               

Wahba(2015),


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310

 

ChaPter9

 

0′8口′7′zq“o′7Del’e/oP′77e′7rq′7dSe′7se-崩劣qk′′7g自愛iprodc方es

   

   

                  

 

  

.m

 

 

 

                                        


 

 


         

gavethem a

 

languagein whichtointroducechangeforimprovement,Similarly,illumi-

          

nationofthelocalmeaningofeffectivesupervision,highperformance,and whatconsti-

         

tutedagooddayatworkgavethose withleadershiprolesconstructsto work withfor

         

makingimprovementsandthelanguageforintroducingchange.

 

Managers,and

 

particularlyfirst‐linesupervisors,wereaskedtousethis

 

new under-

standinggainedfromthefindingsofthestudy.Theirnew understandingcouldbeused

tointerpretthelocaーmeaningofeffectiveworktocapitalizeonstrengthstoexpandand

developexistinggoodpracticesinordertoswampproblems,thatis,torenderproblems

lesstroubーesomeevenifunsolved,

 

Thefindingsofthestudyalsocouldbeusedasthebasisforexperiments.Membersof

theso‐calledLeadershipCore下eam wereinstructedtointroducechangeasanexperiment--

something

 

to

 

be

 

tried

 

and

 

watched

 

closely,and

 

after

 

a designated

 

time,if

 

it

 

is

 

not

workingashoped,itcanbestopped.Framingchangesasexperimentsrequiresthinking

throughwhatisexpectedandhowandwhento measuretheresults.Andbyinterpreting

           

the

 

possible

 

results

 

beforethey happen,all

 

outcomescan

 

be

 

positive,Even

 

ifthings

           

don’tgoashoped,whatdoeshappencanyieldlearning.AI1experimentsaresuccesses

             

atone-eveloranother.

             

Tom embracedtheframing ofchangeasexper-ment,anditwasprobablyhis most

           

b.A

 

reciativeln

 

uir

ChaPte「9

 

0増の7!zmわ〃D印可oP′77の7rq′7dSの?se-ルメロ膚′7g月口Prod欲es

 

311

   

Additional

 

Reading

Bunker,B.B.,andA1ban,B.T,2006.“?e 脚′?〆bのた け加増egrozの“筋力αお Crmr!〃g

sy財の打た 豹α万ge!“◇rgo打迄の!α7sα′?〆 の′mm‘“ZZだs.San Francisco,CA:J‐ossey‐Bass.Provides

detai1son methodsusedinlargegroupinterVentionsand multiplecasesstudiesillustrat-

ingthesuccessfuluseoflargegroup methodsinarangeofindustriesandcountries.

Bushe,G,R,,and Marshak,R.1(eds.),2015,D彰/ogco増加Zmz!o“Delだ/opme′7た “le
物eoiγα〃〆″mmceげ『m〃駅α′??”『!om/c加増e.oakland:CA,Berrett-Koehler.Acompre‐
hensiveintroductiontotheeVolvingfieldofDialogicODfromtheoriginatorsofthis
approachto managingorganizationalchange.

Cooperrider,D.L., Whitney,D.,andStavros,i.M.2008.劣Zzeゑ愛野だα煽れ’el“q”!′γ乃α“

booた めr/mαの ザc毎〃解.2nded.San Francisco,CA:Berrett‐Koehler.A detailedguide
totheapplicationofA1,mcludmgrationaleande×amples,from originatorsoftheconcept.

Cummings,T.G‐.,and駅煮orley,C.G.2019.0増α′2迄のわ〃Deve/op′“e′7『α〃〆c角α′7ge.1lthed.
Stab〔lford,CT:CengageLearnimg.Acomprehens~eandclassicteぬbookon DiaきりlosticOD.

Kragヒ,A.,Sparr,J.L,,andpeus,C,2018,Givingand ma頴ngsenseaboutchange:The
backand めrthbetweenleadersandemployees.おげ〃頒qfβ婚姻ess路γc加わ鰯33二71‐87.
Providesa 丘alエーeworkthatidentifiesemP1oyeesense-ma]bLngneedsatdifiョerentpointsin
theorganizationalchangeprocessandtheassociatedleadersense‐glv・ngactivities.

Quinn,R.E.,andCameron,K.S.2019.PositiveorganizationaIScholarshipandagents

ofchange.Rおseqrc方!“ ○増αmz傭わ″α/CI物α“geq“〆上)eveお廃れe′7Z27:31‐7.Focusesonthe
roleofthechangeagentfrom aPositive 0rganizationaIScholarshipperspective.

Roundup

Doyoumodelthechan9ebehavioryou
desire?

VVhose

 

interests

 

do

 

you serve

 

when

youengageinchange?

ls

 

your

 

approach

 

value‐laden

 

or

 

val-

ue-neutra-?

 

-fvalue‐laden,canyou

 

ar-

ticu-atewhatthesevaluesare?Areyou

comfortabーewiththem?

VVhatdoyoumeanwhenyoutalkabout

achangebeingsuccessful?VVhatcrite-

riadoyouuse?Dotheyreiatetoorgani-

zationaー

 

performance?

 

How

 

can

 

you
determinethis?

Arethereotherpeople,inside

 

orout-

sideyourorganization,whohavediffer-
ing

 

perspectives

 

on

 

such

 

questions?

VVhat

 

wouーd

 

you

 

say

 

arethe

 

criteria

they

 

L1seto

 

evaーuatechange?

 

ーsyour

organizationopentohavingconversa-

tionsaroundthisissue?

lfyou

 

manage

 

across

 

differentcoun-

tries,to

 

what

 

extent

 

have

 

you

 

ob‐

served

 

the

 

necessity for

 

different

ways

 

of

 

engaging

 

in organizational

changeinthosecountries?VVhyisthis

thecase?

Canyou

 

identifydifferentsense-mak-
ingactivitiesgoingonduringorgan-za-

tionalchange?VVhatabilitydoyouhave

to

 

influence

 

these?

 

Do

 

you exercise

powerinyourattemptstoinfluencethe
interpretations

 

others

 

have

 

ofchange

situations?

 

VVith

 

whatsuccess?

 

VVhat

a「etheimplicationsofthis?

312

 

ChaPter9

 

0増の7皮α〃α7‘)eye/○卵77e′7『q′7dSe′78g‐肋函た′′7g月PPmqc/?es

         

HereisashortsummaryofthekeyPointsthatwewouldlikeyoutotake丘omthischaPter

            

inrelationtoeachofthelearningoutcomes:

国璽園 4P卿・edのe“?”・edmのノ殆どo増の7Zz研か7αc乃の7geの野oq所踏 切?彼の方刀7′′7g『庇coqc方 伽〆

!〃Zem′セZe“′?7αges げ〃m′7αg“?gc加′?ge.
VVhiletwoofthechangeimages-cqrerq化erand′mr九げび一Presentchange managersas

rece1V1ngratherthaninitiatingChange,theotherFourimages-〆かecrの)coqcね′?のノをのO′;

and/′7rerpだだメーpresentthechangemanagerashavinganactive,asoPPosedtoreactive,

roleinhowchangeoccursinorganizations.Theimageofthechangemanagerasmα疏

isparticularlystrongintheaPProachtochangethathasdevelopedwithwhatisknown

asorganizationDevelopment(OD)anditsderivatives,includingAPPreciativelnquiry

(紅),changeasviewed 丘om withintheperspectiveofPositive organizationalscho1一

arship(POS),and Dialogic oD.Thecoachlinkisthateach ofthese apProaches

involvesencouragingawillingnesstochangeandthedevelopingofchangecaPabilities

inPeoP1e,ratherthansee]bLngtobringaboutchangebytop‐downedict,Theimageof

thechange manageras 粥だの岩ezerlinkscloselyto asense-ma]績ngView oftheroleof

thechange manager

坊7庇富加′7dz庇 0増加!z研か7Del尼定期77e′7『rODJ郷コ野川α飲 め 叱伽解.
UnderPinnedbythe のqcAimage,the organization Development(。D)apProachis

onewhereitsadherentsPresenttheirdevelopmentalprescriptionsForachievingchange

asbeingbased,atleasttraditionally,uPonacoresetofvalues:valuesthatemPhasize

thatchangeshouldbenefitnotjustorganizationsbutthePeoP1e whosta甘them,

βeqnノαだ げexrem′o′7sげZ庇 OD の夢roα所 s.”cヵαs4PPだαのかe力川“/′)ぅPOSカハぞ o増研か

z傭わ′7〆S所o超な占め,の可 D!”わ部COD,
lnchaPter2,wesuggestedthatthecoachimageisa metaPhor食)rthin麺Lngaboutthe
organization DeveloPmentapproach, OD Practitionerscoach organizations

 

andthe

peopleinthemtowardintentionaloutcomes.Theseoutcomesareshapedbyasetof

valuesthatemPhasizehumanistic,democratic,anddevelopmentalaspirations,1nrecent

times,thesevalueshavebeenplacedunderthemicroscopeintermsoftheiruniversal

apP1icability,inParticularregardingtheiraPplicabilityinanenvironmentthataPPears

to demandradical,notdevelopmentalchange-an

 

era wherethe bottom linerather

than democraticvaluesaPpearsto haveahigherPriorityforengaginginchange.

ofcourse,theredoesnotnecessarilyhavetobeadichotomouschoicebetweena免cus

on Peopleand a 危cusonthebottom line;one mayleadtotheother. Nevertheless,

adherentstotheOD approach havehadtoreassesshowtheirapProachto managing

changecanbeadaptedtothechangingtimes,

 

ChaPter

 

lowiuPickupthisthemeinmoredetail;su甘iceittosaythatWee×Pect

thattheoD aPProachis1ikelytoremainastrongcontender云or managingchangein

thefuture,However,itisalsolikelythatitwillloseitsdistinctive,traditionalcharacter

asitismoldedin di鎖erent ways.Somechanges moveoD moreinthe directionof

deliveringtangible,measurableoutPuts,whileotherssuchasPOSexplicitlyassertthe

imPortanceoforganizationalinterventionsthatimProvethe‘‘humancondition”inways

thatarenotreducibleto“traditionallyPursuedorganizationaloutcomes“suchasProf

itability(Cameronand MCNaughtan,2014),ThisevolutionofoDhasledsomecom‐

mentatorstosuggestthatthereneedstobegreaterrecognitionthatoDisnow not

園霞圏

樹霞圃圃

   

                                           

ChaPter9

 

6ケgdmz僻め′7上杉ve/○卵77e′7rq′7dSe理解黍〆”膚′7g月口Proqc/だs

 

313

                   

oneapproachbutapluralityofapproaches.lfso,thengreaterclaritywillbeneeded

                

inhow ODistalkedabout,including whetherclassicornewerversionsofOD-such

                

asDialogic OD-arebeingre定rredto whenthetermisbeingused.

1国璽圏 坊可e都殻“〆功esem mαた粥gq刀Proαcた わ 豹α″ge.
lnchapter2,wedepictedthesense-makingapproachtoorganizationalchangeasdraw-

inguponanimageofthechange managerasZ〃彫塑reだzlnthischapter,wehavebeen

abletodelvedeeperintothedi観erentelementsofthisimage,ASHelmsMills’(2003)
studyofNovaScotia Powershowed,thereareanumberofdi鎖erentlevelson which
thechange manageras/′?定めだ『eroperates,each ofwhich requiresattention, Atthe
sametime,thisapproachdoesnotimplythatmasteringeachoftheselevelswillalways

enableintended outcomestobeachieved. Widerfbrces,bothinsideandoutsidethe

organization,wi且ensurethattherewillalwaysbecompeting危rces→vying危raprivileged

placeinprovidingfbrorganizationalmembersaninterpretation of“what’sgo・ng on
here”aswellas“whatneedstogoonhere.

”Theinterpreterimagethere危repointsout

tochangeagentstheneedtohavearealisticviewofwhatcanbeachievedinundergoing

organizational

 

change. Aュthough

 

managers

 

of

 

change

 

may

 

find

 

the

 

sense‐making

approachtobemoredifficultgiventhatitislesstangibleintermsof“whatneedsto

bedone,
”itisalsolikelytogiveothermanagerscom危rtinrea茸irmingtheirexperlence

ofthemessinessofchangeandidentificationofnew waysofapproachingit.

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