Posted: February 27th, 2023

Prospectus

69

Impro

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ng Attention Spans in Reading of Pre-K Students in Head-start Program

by

An Applied Dissertation Submitted to the

Abraham S. Fischler College of Education

and School of Criminal Justice in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Degree of Doctor of Education

Nova Southeastern University

2023

Approval Page

This applied dissertation was submitted by Ternesha Pittman under the direction of the persons listed below. It was submitted to the Abraham S. Fischler College of Education and School of Criminal Justice and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education at Nova Southeastern University.

Shery Bennett, EdD

Committee Chair

Barbara Christina, EdD

Committee Member

Kimberly Durham, PsyD

Dean

Statement of Original Work

I declare the following:

I have read the Code of Student Conduct and Academic Responsibility as described in the
Student Handbook of Nova Southeastern University. This applied dissertation represents my original work, except where I have acknowledged the ideas, words, or material of other authors.

Where another author’s ideas have been presented in this applied dissertation, I have acknowledged the author’s ideas by citing them in the required style.

Where another author’s words have been presented in this applied dissertation, I have acknowledged the author’s words by using appropriate quotation devices and citations in the required style.

I have obtained permission from the author or publisher—in accordance with the required guidelines—to include any copyrighted material (e.g., tables, figures, survey instruments, large portions of text) in this applied dissertation manuscript.

Ternesha Pittman__________

Name

February 14, 2023__________

Date

Abstract

Improving Attention Spans in Reading of Pre-K Students in Head-start Program: A Phenomenological Perspective. Ternesha Pittman, 2023: Applied Dissertation, Nova Southeastern University, Abraham S. Fischler College of Education and School of Criminal Justice. Keywords: attention span, pre-kindergarten

The first paragraph must contain all of the elements shown in this sample. The applied dissertation title, your name (surname last), and the year must be identical to the title, name, and year on the title page.

Single-space within each paragraph, but double-space between paragraphs. Do not indent the first lines of paragraphs. The narrative portion (i.e., after the informational first paragraph) of the abstract should be 220-270 words. The abstract must not exceed one page in length. See section 2.04 of the APA manual for content guidelines.

[INSERT DESCRIPTION OF DISSERTATION- Example Follows]: This applied dissertation was designed to provide better access to current information for the students and staff in a middle school. The printed materials located in the school’s media center were outdated, scarce, or inadequate. Electronic databases were available in the media center for online searching and information retrieval. However, the students did not know how to use databases as a source for completing class assignments or how to browse within these online services to find additional information. Teachers also did not know to use electronic information to enrich their lessons.

The researcher developed lesson plans and strategies to train students and teachers on two online services available in the media center. Daily sessions on these databases provided students and teachers with training in (a) e-mail usage, (b) searching and locating current events information, (c) printing from the screen, (d) saving messages, and (e) dialing into the online services. Teachers were encouraged to continue to use these services for curriculum enrichment and as an additional source for future lesson plans.

An analysis of the data revealed that students were more likely than teachers to use the online databases. The most successful activities were those that involved students in research information about current events. Although teachers planned assignments that required the use of online services, they did not want to provide additional time for students to be in the media center.

Table of Contents
Comment by Dr Shery Bennett: I had already fixed this why did you change it? The table of contents is not in italics and many of these headings do not go here. I already fixed this once. So now it has to be fixed again. These are single spaced times new roman, no italics. This will have to be done again.

Abstract iv
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 1
The Research Problem 2
Background and Justification 4
Deficiencies in the Evidence 5
Audience 7
The Setting of the Study 7
Researcher’s Role 8
Purpose of the Study 9
Definition of Terms 10
Chapter 2: Literature Review 13
Introduction 13
Theory of Attention 14
How Further Research Should Extend 17
Shortcomings of the Previous Research 18
Critiques on Literature 20
Factors Associated with Attention Problems in Preschoolers 21
Problems with Focus in Preschoolers 23
Attention and Cognitive Development in Kindergarten 26
Significance of Children’s Concentration-Persistence for Future Success 29
Research Question Considerations 32
Recommendations 35
Strategies to Improve Attention Spans 36
Teacher-Directed Reading 36
Significance of Considering the Setting 37
Contextual Changes in Instructional Materials 38
Apprenticeship in the Classroom Language 40
Hybridity and the Growth of Third Spaces 42
Computer-based Instruction 43
Training Programs Offered by Computer-based Instruction 43
Executive Functions Training 43
Math School-based Programs 45
Parental Involvement Programs 46
Types of Parental Involvement Programs to Benefit Students 47
Parental Involvement During Family Mealtime Conversation 49
Conclusion 50
Research Questions 50
References 55
Chapter 4: Findings 67
Chapter 5: Discussion 68

Appendices

A Title in Initial Caps and Lower Case—Begin a Second Line Directly Below the First Line 60

B Title in Initial Caps and Lower Case 62

Tables

1 Title in Initial Caps and Lower Case 10

2 Title in Initial Caps and Lower Case 48

Figure

Title in Initial Caps and Lower Case 47

vi

Chapter 1: Introduction

Statement of the Problem

The problem addressed in this study is the difficulty pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs maintain attention while engaged in reading activities. Research has shown that attention span is a critical aspect of reading development, as it directly impacts a child’s ability to process and understand the material they are reading (Ledford et al., 2008).

Evidence supporting the existence of the problem includes studies that found pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs often struggle with attention and focus during reading activities (Gathercole et al., 2008). Additionally, research has shown that attention span in young children is a strong predictor of later academic achievement (Raver, 2002). There is a trend of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs having difficulty with attention and focus during reading activities. The setting for this study will take place at elementary schools in Southeastern Florida for pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs.

Probable causes of the problem include lack of parental involvement, teacher-directed reading and computer-based instruction, and lack of individualised instruction (Ledford et al., 2000). The specific and feasible statement of the problem is to determine the effectiveness of different strategies, such as parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction, in improving the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities (Tian et al., 2020).

The problem can be attributed to various factors, including the increasing use of technology in the classroom, changes in family dynamics and parenting practices, and a general decline in physical activity levels (Kim et al., 2018). Research has shown that excessive screen time can lead to decreased attention spans and difficulty focusing on other tasks, such as reading (Benton et al., 1987). Additionally, some families have become more reliant on technology for entertainment and education, leading to less time spent on traditional activities such as reading together (Schuck et al., 2018). Furthermore, the sedentary lifestyle many children lead today is a contributing factor, as physical activity has been linked to improved cognitive function and attention (Geri et al., 2017).

The problem of decreased attention spans in Pre-K students in Head-start programs is compounded by the fact that these children are at a critical stage in their development when their brains are rapidly forming and growing. During this time, children develop foundational skills and knowledge that will set the foundation for future success in school and beyond (Basso et al., 2016).

In conclusion, the problem of decreased attention spans in Pre-K students in Head-start programs is a growing concern that affects not only the students but also their families and teachers. The problem is complex and can be attributed to various factors, including technology, changes in family dynamics, and a decline in physical activity (Kim et al., 2018). Given the critical stage of development these children are in; the problem must be omitted to ensure that these students have the best chance for success in their future education and life.

The Research Problem

The research problem in this study is the gap between the desired level of attention and focus pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs should have while engaged in reading activities and the level of attention and focus currently observed (Bassok et al., 2016). While it is acknowledged that attention span is a critical aspect of reading development, pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs often struggle with attention and focus during reading activities.

The gap in attention span can negatively impact their ability to process and understand the material they are reading and can also predict lower academic achievement in the Future (Tang & Posner, 2009; Gaston et al., 2016). The research problem is to investigate the strategies that can effectively close this gap and improve the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities, and how parental involvement can be effective in this regard (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016).

The gap between what is desired and what is observed in this situation concerns educators, parents, and researchers. Understanding the underlying causes of this problem is essential, as finding effective solutions to improve the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Doherty et al., 2002). This research problem is particularly relevant in today’s world, where technology and digital devices are becoming increasingly prevalent and may affect children’s attention spans.

In general, the research problem of Improving Attention Spans in Reading of Pre-K Students in Head-start Program is a critical issue that deserves attention and research. By finding effective solutions, we can ensure that pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs receive the support they need to succeed in their education and beyond (Kim et al., 2018). A successful solution will not only benefit these students but also have a positive impact on their future academic careers and lives

Background and Justification

The problem of difficulty in maintaining attention while engaged in reading activities among pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs is well-documented in the literature (Reid et al., 2015). Research has shown that attention span is a critical aspect of reading development, as it directly impacts a child’s ability to process and understand the material they are reading (Ledford et al., 2008). Studies have found pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs often struggle with attention and focus during reading activities (Gathercole et al., 2008; Wasik et al., 2009). Additionally, research has shown that attention span in young children is a strong predictor of later academic achievement (Raver, 2002).

Furthermore, parental involvement in reading activities has been shown to positively affect children’s reading skills, vocabulary, and comprehension (Karweit, 1989; Wasik et al., 2009). Studies have also found that computer-based instruction can effectively improve reading skills, especially for students with poor reading skills (Kim et al., 2018). The problem of difficulty in maintaining attention while engaged in reading activities among pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs is relevant as it can negatively impact their ability to process and understand the material they are reading and can also predict lower academic achievement in the Future (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). Thus, it is important to investigate strategies that can effectively improve the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities and investigate parental involvement’s role.

Deficiencies in the Evidence

There are many literature sources focusing on the challenges in maintaining attention during reading activities among pre-kindergarten students enrolled in Head-start programs. However, there are still several areas that need improvement (Kikas et al., 2018). One thing to improve on is to perform more studies that narrow down to precise strategies that can successfully improve the attention span of learners in Head-starts programs during the reading activities (Murray et al., 2018; Silverstein et al., 2001). Some studies have explored the role of parental involvement during reading session and they identify that additional research need to be performed to assess its effectiveness (Alvarado et al., 2017). While some studies are inclining towards investigating the efficiency of computer-based instruction on reading abilities, still advanced research need to be performed in this area to assess its effectiveness in increasing learners’ attention span (Ledford et al., 2008).

Another need for the problem is more research on the long-term effects of attention span improvement on students’ academic performance and Success (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). While some studies have investigated the relationship between attention span and academic achievement, there needs to be more research on the long-term effects of interventions to improve attention span on academic performance and success in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs.

Given these deficiencies in the evidence, there is a need for further research to investigate the specific strategies and parental involvement that can be effective in improving the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities and the long-term effects of attention span improvement on students’ academic performance and Success (Kook & Greenfield, 2021).

Moreover, while some studies have looked into how well computer-based instruction affects reading abilities, there needs to be more data on how well technology affects pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs’ attention spans when participating in reading activities (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). Lack of Study on the long-term consequences of attention span enhancement on students’ academic performance and success is another area of need regarding the issue (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). Research on the long-term consequences of interventions to increase attention span on academic performance and success in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs still needs to be completed, despite several studies examining the association between attention span and academic achievement.

In conclusion, there are deficiencies in the evidence related to the problem of low attention span in pre-kindergarten students while reading (Basso et al., 2016). The literature needs a comprehensive understanding of the underlying causes of this problem and the effectiveness of interventions aimed at improving attention span. This study aims to address these deficiencies in the evidence and provide new insights into this important issue. Given these deficiencies in the evidence, there is a need for further research to investigate the specific strategies and parental involvement that can be effective in improving the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities and the long-term effects of attention span improvement on students’ academic performance and Success (Kook & Greenfield, 2021).

Audience

The audience affected by the problem of difficulty in maintaining attention while engaged in reading activities among pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs includes the pre-kindergarten students themselves, as well as their families, teachers, and the broader community. Pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs who struggle with attention and focus during reading activities may have difficulty processing and understanding the material, which can negatively impact their reading development and academic achievement. It can lead to difficulties in later grades and potentially impact their future success.

In addition to the pre-kindergarten students, their families, and communities are also affected by this problem. Parents and caregivers play a critical role in supporting their children’s education and development. A lack of attention span in reading can lead to difficulties in communication and bonding between children and their families (Kim et al., 2018). Furthermore, a lack of attention span can also impact these students’ educational attainment and future success, which can have ripple effects on their communities.

The Setting of the Study

The setting for this study will take place at Southeastern Florida, pre-kindergarten, a Head-start program. Head-start programs are federally funded programs that provide comprehensive early childhood education, health, nutrition, and parent involvement services to low-income children and their families. The classrooms in these programs typically include students between the ages of 3 and 5 who come from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds, with an average of 20 to 40 students.

In Southeastern Florida, pre-kindergarten is in an urban area, with classrooms and students ethnically and culturally diverse (Raver, 2002). The study will focus on implementing different strategies such as parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction in these classrooms and the impact these strategies have on the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities.

The study will take place in multiple pre-kindergarten settings within the Head-Start program to provide a comprehensive understanding of the problem. It will help ensure that the study’s findings are representative of the population of pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs and are not biased by the specific characteristics of a single setting (Karweit, 1989).

In conclusion, the setting for the Study of Improving Attention Spans in Reading of Pre-K Students in the Head-start Program will be pre-kindergarten classrooms within the Head Start program (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). This setting provides an ideal environment for observing and assessing students’ attention spans and implementing interventions to improve their attention spans. (Karweit, 1989).

Researcher’s Role

In this study’s context, the researcher will design and conduct the study, collect and analyse data, and interpret and report the findings. The researcher will be responsible for ensuring that the study is conducted ethically and rigorously, with appropriate safeguards in place to protect the rights and well-being of participants.

In addition, the researcher will collaborate with other members of the research team, including educators, administrators, and other professionals, as needed. This collaboration would be critical in ensuring that the study is designed and implemented feasibly and that it considers the needs and perspectives of all stakeholders involved.

The researcher will also be responsible for disseminating the study’s findings to the wider academic community and relevant stakeholders, including educators, policymakers, families, and communities. This dissemination would be critical in ensuring that the study’s findings are used to inform the development of policies and programs that support the education and development of pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs.

In conclusion, the role of the researcher in the Study of Improving Attention Spans in Reading of Pre-K Students in the Head-start Program is critical. The researcher will be responsible for designing and conducting the study, collecting and analysing data, and interpreting and reporting the findings. The researcher will also collaborate with other research team members and disseminate the study findings to relevant stakeholders.

Purpose of the Study

This study investigates the effectiveness of different strategies, such as parental involvement, teacher-directed reading, and computer-based instruction, in improving the attention spans of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). Additionally, the study aims to examine the role of parental involvement in promoting the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities (Kim et al., 2018). The study seeks to provide insight and evidence on the best methods to improve attention span in young children, which will benefit educators, parents, and policymakers (Wrońska et al., 2015). Ultimately, the study aims to improve the reading development and academic achievement of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, which can positively impact their future success.

This study aims to determine the effectiveness of interventions to improve the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs. At the same time, they engage in reading activities (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). This information will be critical in informing the development of educational programs and policies that support the education and development of young children in Head Start programs and will provide insights into the strategies and approaches that are most effective in improving attention span and promoting success in reading activities

Definition of Terms

Pre-Kindergarten (PK) and Voluntary Pre-Kindergarten (VPK) are educational programs designed for children who are 4 or 5 years old and have yet to start kindergarten (Basso et al., 2016). Public schools usually offer Pre-Kindergarten (PK) programs. They are usually free of charge to families, although some programs may have specific requirements such as income limits or language proficiency (Basso et al., 2016). These programs are intended to provide early education to children to prepare them for kindergarten and future school success.

Voluntary Pre-Kindergarten (VPK) is a state-funded program in some states, such as Florida. It is intended to provide free educational opportunities for children four years old before kindergarten (Basso et al., 2016). The program is made available by public and commercial providers, and the teaching follows state-mandated guidelines that concentrate on educational, social, and emotional growth.

PK and VPK programs prepare children for kindergarten by providing early education focusing on literacy, numeracy, and social-emotional development (Rodriguez, 2013). They also offer opportunities for children to interact with their peers, build their language and communication skills, and develop their cognitive abilities while providing parents and caregivers with support and resources.

Head-start is for a limited number of children and their families in the United States; Head Start is a federal program that offers a wide range of early childhood education, health, nutrition, and intervention services (Hines, 2017). Initiated in 1965 as part of the War on Poverty, the program is now administered by the Department of Health and Human Services and helps more than a million children annually.

Head Start services are designed to enhance students’ cognitive knowledge and foster their social and emotional growth to prepare them for school success (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). The program provides early childhood education that includes activities that help children, help develop social and emotional, as well as language, reading, and numeracy skills (Pianta et al., 2021). The program also provides health and nutrition services, such as physical exams, dental care, and nutrition education, to help ensure that children are healthy and ready to learn.

Small group reading is a teaching approach in which a teacher works with a small group of students, typically 4-6, to provide targeted and differentiated instruction in reading (Kikas et al., 2018). It is an effective way to provide individualised instruction, adapt to the varying demands of children, and carefully track their development.

Teacher-directed reading is a teaching approach in which the teacher actively guides students through the reading process, providing explicit instruction, modelling, and feedback (Kikas et al., 2018). The approach emphasises the teacher’s role in leading and directing the reading instruction and the student’s role in actively following and engaging with the instruction.

During teacher-directed reading, the teacher introduces a new text or concept, provides background knowledge, and seeks a reading purpose (Lerkkanen et al., 2016). Then the teacher modelled the reading process, demonstrating strategies such as how to make predictions, identify main ideas, or use context clues. Next, the students practised these strategies with the teacher’s guidance, asking and answering questions, making connections, and applying their learned strategies.

Computer-based instruction refers to using computers and technology to deliver educational content and assessments to students. Computer-based instruction has become increasingly popular as technology has advanced and becomes more widely available (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). In Pre-K and Kindergarten (VK), computer-based instruction has been used to teach various subjects, including reading. The use of computers in early childhood education has been found to have both positive and negative effects on student learning and development.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction

Scholarly materials on improving attention spans in the reading of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs shows that attention span is a critical aspect of reading development. Studies have found pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs often struggle with attention and focus during reading activities (Gathercole et al., 2008; Wasik et al., 2009). Research has also shown that attention span in young children is a strong predictor of later academic achievement (Raver, 2002).

Several studies have also investigated the effectiveness of different strategies in promoting the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs while they are engaged in reading activities. For example, parental involvement in reading activities has been shown to positively affect children’s reading skills, vocabulary, and comprehension (Karweit, 1989; Wasik et al., 2009). Additionally, studies have found that computer-based instruction can effectively improve reading skills, especially for students with poor reading skills (Kim et al., 2018).

This section will synthesise the existing research on attention span, reading activities, and pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs. The review will focus on identifying the effective interventions that improve attention span in young children, as well as exploring the underlying mechanisms and processes that contribute to changes in attention span (Basso et al., 2016). The review will also examine the factors that may influence the effectiveness of interventions, such as the age of the students, the setting in which the interventions are implemented, and the type and intensity of the interventions.

Theoretical Framework

Theories on Reading Development

Different theories on reading development among childrens in Pre-kindergarten Headstart Programs provide a description of the different stages through which students develop reading skills from early development stages to advanced levels. A study by Laws (2010) identify that students start by relying on visual recognition of the entire written word and relate it to its pronunciation a stage identified logographic stage. This phase relies on understanding each printed word together with its oral form. Afterwards, the children progress to alphabetic stage and can understand the world based on the knowledge from letter sounds.

Another theory is Knowledge hypothesis by Anderson and Freebody’s which suggest that knowledge of words is a reflection of the background knowledge and a plan of the topic. Therefore understanding the meaning of phrases and words used within texts as well as the meaning of the word within the context of precise types of texts is integral in helping students to understand the text (Baker et al., 2014). On the contrary, Kintsch’s theory on discourse comprehension theory pinpoints that it is critical for adults to pose question to their children and to develop activities that will stimulate deep thinking and construct diverse knowledge of vocabularly. Deep learning require integration of prior information with the new knowledge and the outcomes is the prowes to use the newly information within new contexts (Baker et al., 2014).

Theory of Attention

Unusual is the notion that children exhibit signs of inattention. A child may find it challenging to be in an environment with several readily distracting stimuli. It takes work to concentrate on more than just one item. (Rojas, 2016) assert that many individuals frequently fail to pay attention. They need help to maintain their focus on what is most essential at any given time. It may endanger lives; for instance, accidents may occur if motorists disregard traffic signals at intersections.

According to them, paying attention consists of six distinct components. Several examples include attention span, previewing and planning, selectivity and saliency evaluation, distractibility, alertness and arousal, self-monitoring and self-regulation, and attention span. Awareness is the initial stage in attracting someone’s attention to the previously listed topics. This argues that to concentrate, one must be actively engaged in an activity. The next step is exercising discretion. At any one moment, many stimuli are continuously entering the system (Brendamour & Chai, 2016). The brain must choose which of these goals should be prioritised. The ability to pick which organisation-influencing actions to do is the “determination of salience.” This component is essential for daily tasks. The teacher would offer the essential instructions for the pupils to execute a task in class. Since writing all laws on paper is impossible, the brain must choose the most significant ones. The capacity to rapidly shift attention is the third need for attracting notice. Any unpleasant ideas, whether internal or external, are included. To focus on the current action, you must eliminate them. The attention span requirement is the fourth prerequisite.

It requires the perseverance and stamina necessary to complete the task at hand. Like the requirement for physical energy to run a marathon, mental energy is required to maintain concentration while working. The next step includes preliminary planning and analysis. Before launching a project, it is essential to analyse all possible outcomes and choose the strategy that would provide the best results (Brendamour & Chai, 2016). Before raising their hands to respond to a question on the teacher’s presentation, students should carefully consider their answers and refrain from shouting. The next phase of responsibilities includes self-control and self-monitoring. This is an essential step, especially when a project is well along. Enhanced self-discipline and behaviour monitoring boost concentration.

(Mackay, 1973) aims to clarify and explain the information filtering process. Using the bottleneck approach, the author illustrated how the water flow reduces as the bottleneck grows narrower. According to the Broadbent attention model, it is difficult for a person to absorb several sensory information simultaneously. Donald Broadbent pioneered the vast majority of data processing technologies. Conducted a study on air traffic controller operations. Broadbent conducted a “dichotic listening” study to understand this issue better. (Mackay, 1973) asserts that all input data is stored in a sensory buffer before being processed further and that one input is then selected based on its physical properties. Because our capacity to absorb information is limited, a filter has been devised to protect us from being exposed to overwhelming data. In addition, he asserts that unselected inputs are still there after the sensory buffer has been cleared. Broadbent was captivated by the processes that enable individuals to focus their attention (selective attention). He bombarded them with stimuli to achieve his goal. The data revealed unequivocally that individuals could concentrate on one activity simultaneously.

Consequently, the author developed the “filter” concept and the “single channel” technique. This method considers the sensory information that different physical qualities give. According to the research results, external stimuli are one of the most effective methods to boost a person’s capacity to concentrate for an extended time (Washington, 2017). The brain will be better able to focus and pay attention to the task at hand if the activity and instructions are presented one at a time. During a fine mobility task, such as threading a button onto a bottle, the brain may focus on a single action, such as picking up the button.

How Further Research Should Extend

Further research on improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs should build upon the foundation of previous studies while also seeking to address some of the limitations and gaps in the existing evidence (Vaughn et al., 2002). It can be done by replicating previous studies to confirm the effectiveness of various interventions and by conducting new studies that test different interventions or explore new perspectives on the problem (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007).

One critical variable that future research should consider is the role of individual differences in attention span and reading ability, as well as other factors that may contribute to these difficulties, such as socioeconomic status, parental involvement, and access to resources. By exploring these factors, researchers can understand the problem and develop more effective interventions considering individual students’ unique needs and circumstances.

Another important area for future research is the effectiveness of technology-based interventions in improving attention span and reading ability in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). While previous studies have shown that these interventions can be effective, much is still to be learned about the best way to use technology to support student learning and how these interventions can be integrated into existing educational programs and practices.

Finally, future research needs to address how to sustain the gains in attention span and reading ability achieved through various interventions (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). It will require long-term studies that track the outcomes of students over time, as well as research into how schools and educators can support and reinforce the gains achieved through these interventions.

In conclusion, there is a clear need for further research on the problem of attention span in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs to build on the foundation of previous studies and address some of the limitations and gaps in the existing evidence (Vaughn et al., 2002). By exploring critical variables and important questions in this area, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the problem and develop more effective interventions that support the academic success of these young students (Basso et al., 2016).

Shortcomings of the Previous Research

It is crucial to evaluate the advantages of earlier studies and pinpoint their drawbacks to avoid them in future studies while reviewing the literature on increasing the attention spans of pre-kindergarten pupils in Head Start programs. By doing this, researchers may improve upon the shortcomings of earlier studies and build on their strengths.

One of the areas for improvement of prior research in this area is a need for more consistency in measuring attention span and reading ability. It can make it difficult to compare the results of different studies and to draw accurate conclusions about the effectiveness of different interventions (Basso et al., 2016). To avoid this limitation, future research should use consistent measures and make efforts to standardise these measures across different studies.

Another limitation of previous research is that many studies have been conducted with small sample sizes, limiting their findings’ generalizability (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). To address this limitation, future research should aim to include larger sample sizes, especially when testing new interventions, to increase the power of the study and make more accurate conclusions about the effectiveness of these interventions (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007).

Additionally, much earlier research concentrated on rapid results after the intervention, such as attention span and reading skills (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). However, it is important also to consider the long-term outcomes of these interventions and how they may impact students over time. To address this limitation, future research should include longer-term follow-up assessments to track the sustainability of any gains in attention span and reading ability.

On the other hand, some of the strengths should be investigated more in future studies. Using control groups, which helps to account for uncontrollable factors and provides more accurate evaluations of the efficacy of treatments, is one of these advantages (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). Utilising randomised controlled trials, which improve the study’s internal validity and offer greater proof of the efficacy of therapies, is another strength.

In conclusion, by identifying the shortcomings of prior research and building upon their strengths, researchers can conduct more effective and robust studies on improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Vaughn et al., 2002). By doing so, researchers can contribute to a growing body of knowledge in this area and provide valuable insights into how to support the academic success of these young students.

Critiques on Literature

The literature review is an important foundation for any research proposal, as it provides a comprehensive understanding of the existing evidence on a given topic. However, it is also important to critically evaluate the literature to identify any controversial methodological decisions that may need to be addressed in the proposal (Bauer & Schanzenbach, 2016). This essay will critique the literature on improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs, highlighting some of the controversies and limitations of previous studies that need to be considered when designing a new study.

One of the controversies in the literature on this topic is the use of different measures to assess attention span and reading ability (Basso et al., 2016). While some studies have used standardised measures, others have used more informal assessments or subjective ratings by teachers or parents. This variability in measures can make it difficult to compare the results of different studies and draw accurate conclusions about the effectiveness of different interventions. As such, researchers need to carefully consider which measures to use in their study, considering the strengths and limitations of each measure, to ensure that their results are accurate and reliable.

Another controversy in the literature is the need for more consensus on the most effective interventions for improving attention span and reading ability in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Gathercole et al., 2008). Some studies have focused on providing additional educational resources, while others have focused on behavioural interventions, such as reward systems or educational games (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). This intervention variability makes it difficult to determine which approach is most effective, and researchers must consider this when designing their study.

Additionally, there needs to be long-term studies on the impact of interventions on this population’s attention span and reading ability. While some studies have shown positive short-term effects, it is still being determined whether these effects are sustainable over time or how they may impact students in the long term. (Wasik et al., 2009). As such, researchers need to consider the need for longer-term follow-up assessments to understand the impact of interventions on this population fully.

In conclusion, the literature on improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs highlights several controversies and limitations that need to be taken into consideration when designing a new study (Basso et al., 2016). By critically evaluating the literature, researchers can make informed decisions about the measures to use and the interventions to focus on. The need for longer-term follow-up assessments to contribute to a growing body of knowledge in this area and provide valuable insights into how to support the academic success of these young students (Peck et al., 2005).

Factors Associated with Attention Problems in Preschoolers

It is believed that environmental (Washington, 2017) variables have a role. 2002 research by Biederman and Faraone revealed a genetic link between early developmental variances in newborns’ attentional control. In a recent study that followed over 2,000 Canadian children from 5 months to 8 years, preterm birth, low birth weight, prenatal tobacco exposure, non-intact family, young maternal age, paternal history of antisocial behaviour, and maternal depression were found to be the strongest early predictors of attention problems. In this longitudinal study, children between the ages of 5 months and eight years were investigated (Washington, 2017). Similar to the preceding example, a recent Israeli study discovered that various child developmental characteristics were substantially associated with the later occurrence of ADHD (from birth to one month.

Among these risk variables were a family history of social problems and ADHD, a lower maternal education level, and an older maternal age. Between the ages of 3 and 18 months, a smaller head size, a delay in reaching motor and verbal milestones, and a demanding temperament were all highly associated with the later development of ADHD. As part of the Family Life Project, researchers studied the behaviour of children aged three to five. Their objective was to determine the risk variables for attention deficit disorders. They concluded that a single latent factor remained throughout the preschool years and triggered the appearance of symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity. They also noticed that the degree of education of the carers was the greatest predictor of symptom severity (Mackay, 1973).

Since the beginning of this decade, concerns concerning young children’s use of screen media and the link between this behaviour and the appearance of attention issues at a younger age have progressively increased. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth indicates a correlation between daily television watching between the ages of 1 and 3 and attention issues at age 7. Some study indicates that brief exposure to television may have an immediate effect on the cognitive development of youngsters (Mackay, 1973).

According to newly published research, children who had just seen a fast-paced television show—specifically, a well-known animated cartoon about an underwater sponge—performed lower on the Tower of Hanoi test than children who had not seen the program (Lillard & Peterson, 2011). It is unknown if increased television viewing adds to or accelerates a reduction in attention span. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) advises against restricting screen time for infants younger than two years of age and against permitting older children to watch more than one to two hours of high-quality media daily (Lillard & Peterson, 2011).

Problems with Focus in Preschoolers

Children’s attention problems are often a feature of early infancy. Up to 40% of preschool-aged children already have attention problems that are serious enough to worry parents and preschool teachers (Lillard & Peterson, 2011). Between 3 and 15% of people in community samples, including those who do not meet the requirements for an ADHD diagnosis, exhibit signs of inattention. It has been observed that the percentage of clinical referrals is approaching or above 50% (Mahone, 2005). For instance, up to 72.7% of toddlers are labelled as “motor-driven” or “constantly active” (Lillard & Peterson, 2011). When toddlers exhibit inattention, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is seldom identified (ADHD). It may be a sign of various illnesses or ailments, such as hearing loss, language difficulties, intellectual disabilities, or other psychopathologies, that coexist with ADHD. It is more difficult to identify “disordered” attention, given the variance in caregiver perceptions of attention and the prevalence of ADHD symptoms in this age range (Mahone, 2005).

However, inattention is a common trait unrelated to early childhood development (Mahone, 2005). Preschoolers with attention issues have been better detected and treated during the last 20 years, especially those disorders that share symptoms with ADHD, such as distractibility and hyperactivity. The United States and other countries are becoming more interested in this (Mahone, 2005). Some theories contend that early detection and treatment of attention problems reduce the negative impacts of pediatric illnesses, making it simpler to get the right diagnosis or, more crucially, proving that no diagnostic is required.

The most common condition seen in preschoolers is Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), and prevalence estimates show that it is becoming increasingly common (). 2% of children in a sample of 38,666 general pediatric patients under the age of five were found to have ADHD, according to (Mahone et al., 2005), even though (Connor, 2000) claimed that the incidence might reach 59% in child psychiatric clinics. Participants in each of these studies were under the age of five. Subsequent research assessed 200 children under six who had been sent to an outpatient mental health clinic, and 86% met the diagnostic criteria for ADHD. Compared to their generally developing classmates, preschoolers with poor attentional abilities are substantially more likely to have social, developmental, and academic challenges. These worries could be linked to many developmental deficiencies.

Childhood attention problems are linked to teens’ poor social development and a higher risk of requiring emergency medical care (Mahone et al., 2005). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in early childhood has been linked to later academic failure and grade retention, even at subthreshold levels (Mahone & Schneider, 2012). Six years later, children with behavioural issues are more likely to fulfil the official diagnostic criteria for ADHD. By 18, these kids are far more likely than other kids to experience sadness and suicidal thoughts. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention revealed that between 1998 and 2009, one in eleven American children between the ages of 5 and 17 had been given an ADHD diagnosis (CDC).

In contrast, during the last 20 years, there has been a sharp increase in the proportion of young women with attention problems. A recent, extensive epidemiological study including 3,907 kids showed that 49% of females and 51% of boys had ADHD. The research found that 8.7% of kids met the DSM-IV-TR criteria for ADHD (Froelich et al., 2007).It may be difficult to discern between attentional issues affecting normally developing children and those specifically linked with ADHD (or other co-occurring illnesses) until the age of four. However, early identification and treatment of preschoolers’ attention deficit disorders may lessen some negative effects (). Although early identification and treatment of toddlers’ attention issues may lessen their negative effects, this is the case (Mahone & Schneider, 2012). Studies show that future reading, spelling, and arithmetic difficulties are more probable in children with the inattentive ADHD subtype. However, youngsters who initially exhibit unusually impulsive and hyperactive traits are more likely to acquire ADHD later. While Egger and colleagues found that the inattentive subtype of ADHD is present in fewer than one in 1,000 preschoolers in the general population, other studies have questioned the importance of this subtype throughout the preschool years.

Others have questioned the applicability of the Hyperactive-Impulsive subtype of ADHD to young children (Mahone & Schneider, 2012). Therefore, it is essential to establish exact, impartial methods for assessing newborns’ attention. Based on individuals who use the criterion’s expectations, diagnostic thresholds are often noticed (such as parents and teachers). As a result, the definition of a “disorder” may alter over time. Additionally, relying only on a child’s parents or teachers to describe their symptoms might result in an overdiagnosis.

Additionally, fewer kids are diagnosed with ADHD when the impairment criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR; American Psychiatric Association—APA, 2000) are carefully followed (Mahone & Hoffman, 2007). Although ADHD is currently classified as a categorical phenomenon in the DSM-IV-TR, it is anticipated that these changes will be made in the DSM-V. Due to the potential that the condition displays dimensional oscillations rather than a category item, this is the circumstance (Mahone & Schneider, 2012).

Attention
and Cognitive Development in Kindergarten

The development of the neurological system may be seen beginning two to three weeks after conception (Mahone & Hoffman, 2007). The brain’s attentional control mechanisms are among the earliest to emerge and continue to grow until early adulthood. The route of functional development, however, does not follow a linear pattern; rather, it moves along a region-specific path that reflects the maturity of several brain systems. A child’s brain achieves 80% of an adult’s size by age two (Delevan, 2009). When a child reaches two, myelination and synapse development stop occurring, and neurons start forming complicated dendritic trees. While the main auditory cortex begins to develop at three months old, the prefrontal cortex only matures at fifteen months.

After age five, cortical architecture, ongoing neuronal growth, and experience-dependent pruning of ineffective synapses are the hallmarks of brain development. Synaptic density will eventually decrease to 60% of its prior high (Delevan, 2009). The dynamic process of moulding and limiting skills via experience, which may change the expression of genes, and a process of active brain growth, which is mostly genetically determined, impact the functional development of attention throughout the preschool years (Mahone & Hoffman, 2007). According to (Mahone & Hoffman, 2007), experiential canalisation is a theory outlining how biology and experience combine to provide useful development. This “shaping” occurs throughout normal development due to enhanced myelination and cortical thinning. It happens inadvertently all through development and is linked to improvements in attentional control. Developmental issues with attention, such as ADHD and others, may result from aberrant pruning fueled by experience.

The prefrontal cortex must undergo a lengthy process that starts early childhood and lasts far into adolescence to acquire regulated (top-down) attention. The prefrontal cortex experiences several quick alterations at this age that last well into early adulthood (Luna et al., 2001). Evidence suggests that the prefrontal cortex develops and connects throughout early life, resulting in top-down attention management and other “higher” cognitive functions. Electrophysiology is the most popular technique for assessing infants and children’s prefrontal development. Thus, frontal EEG power, thought to indicate neural excitability, is associated with regulated attention in infants.

The development of a person’s attentional capacity is often assessed behaviorally during the first year of life using several visual attention paradigms (Luna et al., 2001). Frequent, protracted visual fixations characterise the first three months of a baby’s existence. It is due to the visual attraction that young toddlers have for objects with curves and edges, like faces or checkerboards, for example. At this age, infants find it difficult to concentrate on anything beyond what is in front of them. The unrealised developmental potential of the parietal lobes is thought to be the root of this problem, and pathways from the basal ganglia to the superior colliculus have begun to enlarge (Luna et al., 2001) Habituation and paired comparison are two common experimental paradigms with infants. The tools used to gauge a baby’s growth currently encompass variations of both concepts.

The emergence of an infant’s preference for novel experiences is thought to be linked with the development of the parietal cortex and the cortical visual system, typically occurring between the ages of four and six months. Infants reach this stage when they stop staring at things for lengthy periods. The duration of the gaze lengthens between 7 and 12 months and changes from automatic to conscious control. This growth continues throughout the toddler and preschool years (Rossi et al., 2001).

According to their gender, boys and girls develop brain networks that aid attentional management at noticeably different rates (Rossi et al., 2001). Folklore holds that females start school a year sooner than boys because they are three weeks more developed at birth (Delevan, 2009). Although there has been less focus on gender differences in problem behaviour in infancy and the early years, by the age of 4, boys tend to behave more aggressively and impulsively than girls. Due to their earlier neurobiological, cognitive, motor, and social development in early infancy, females may exhibit certain behaviours that delay the onset of some ADHD symptoms in young children. The quantity of white matter increased linearly between the ages of 4 and 20. In contrast, the changes in grey matter were discovered to be nonlinear, regionally specific, and different for boys and girls. Men’s brains had 10% more gray matter than women’s, although women’s peak development occurred considerably younger (10.5 year’s vs 14 years).

Significance of Children’s Concentration-Persistence for Future Success

Throughout childhood, various social and academic outcomes have been related to several attention spans and perseverance characteristics. It has been shown, for instance, that attention span persistence and related concepts such as self-regulation, executive function, and effortful control may be used to predict more severe social outcomes, such as social competence and maladjustment (Delevan, 2009). Furthermore, these components are essential for both social and emotional rehabilitation. Extensive research has shown, for instance, a correlation between attention span, perseverance, and associated attributes such as self-control (Duncan et al., 2007). The capacity of children to pay attention and endure challenging situations has always been assessed, even though different research has employed varied criteria and methods. Research on executive function, learning-related abilities, effortful control, and behavioural regulation will be examined. Each of these investigations constructs and employs unique structures while considering attention span persistence.

A recent study has shown that attention span perseverance is a robust predictor of short-term performance outcomes, even after accounting for the student’s current level of achievement and other relevant traits, such as intelligence (Delevan, 2009). The researchers discovered, for instance, that changes in early behavioural management throughout the preschool year highly predicted changes in reading, mathematics, and vocabulary. Even when researchers considered individuals’ behavioural control and accomplishment starting points, this remained the case (Rossi et al., 2001). Children’s ability to manage their behaviour at the start of kindergarten was an outstanding predictor of their success in reading, mathematics, and vocabulary at the end of the school year, as well as their improvement in arithmetic skills, according to a comparative study. Another research found favourable relationships between young children’s attention spans, cognitive capacities, and achievement levels (Duncan et al., 2007). Reading and arithmetic competence between kindergarten and sixth grade and reading and math progress between kindergarten and second grade were strongly predicted by a child’s learning-related skills in kindergarten. It was unaffected by the child’s IQ, early achievement, and other environmental circumstances (Duncan et al., 2007).

Several components of attention management abilities accurately predict academic achievement and long-term performance. Attention between the ages of 5 and 6, with an average effect size ranging from 0.08 to 0.11 for reading and mathematics, was a strong predictor of reading and arithmetic ability between kindergarten and the beginning of puberty. This circumstance negatively impacted reading and mathematics (Duncan et al., 2007). Even though it was conducted on adolescents, recent research by (Yoon et al., 2007) offers more evidence of the significance of attention span persistence, also known as task persistence, for future performance. Task perseverance in early adolescence at age 13 reliably predicted males’ middle-aged income, occupational level, and educational attainment, with impact sizes ranging from 0.08 to 0.34 for occupational level. Important studies have shown that early self-control, operationalised by perseverance and attention span, predicted adult outcomes such as physical health, drug dependency, income, and criminal conduct (Yoon et al., 2007). In addition, research has connected concentration deficits to poorer academic achievement and performance standards. After adjusting for various background characteristics, such as the child’s IQ, recent research found that teacher evaluations of concentration issues at age six strongly predicted math and reading achievement at age seventeen.

This research demonstrates that attention and persistence are critical in infancy and reliable predictors of various social and academic accomplishments in adulthood. Overall, these findings support the notion that toddlers need these skills. Important life objectives, such as graduating from college, depend highly on concentration and perseverance under adversity. Another study indicates that a parent’s socioeconomic status (SES), cognitive ability, past academic accomplishment, and educational and professional aspirations substantially affect a child’s intellectual development and academic performance (Yoon et al., 2007). Along with parental socioeconomic status, early cognitive ability and academic performance, gender, and age, we expected that early attention span perseverance would be a major and substantial predictor of future accomplishment and college completion.

In summary, the literature on improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs highlights the importance of this issue and provides a foundation for further research (Basso et al., 2016). However, the literature also highlights controversies and limitations, such as variability in measures used, lack of consensus on effective interventions, and need for longer-term studies (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). It is important for researchers to critically evaluate the literature to address these limitations and make informed decisions about their Study (Kim et al., 2018). By doing so, researchers can contribute to the growing body of knowledge in this area and provide valuable insights into how to support the academic success of young students in Head Start programs (Kerns et al.,1999).

Research Question Considerations

Clearly defined research questions guide the study and ensure that the findings are directly relevant to the problem. In improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs, several key questions must be addressed (Gathercole et al., 2008; Alvarado et al., 2017).

1. What are the underlying causes of short attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Wasik et al., 2009)? This question is crucial in understanding why some children struggle with attention in the classroom (Vaughn, 2002). To address this question, researchers need to consider various factors that contribute to attention span, such as biological, environmental, social, and psychological factors.

Biological factors such as genetics, sleep patterns, and nutrition can affect attention span. Environmental factors, such as the quality of early childhood education and the level of stimulation provided in the learning environment, can also impact (Hines, 2017; Ali et al., 2019). Social factors, such as family dynamics, social support, and community resources, may also play a role. Psychological factors, such as executive function and emotional regulation, may be critical in understanding the underlying causes of short attention spans in pre-kindergarten students (Raver, 2002; Pashapoo et al., 2018).

Researchers will likely need to collect data from various sources, including but not limited to parent and teacher surveys, academic assessments, and observations of children in the classroom (Raver, 2002). The data collected will then need to be analysed using statistical methods to determine the relative impact of each of these factors on attention span (Wasik et al., 2009). This information can then be used to develop targeted interventions to improve attention span and academic performance in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs.

2. What interventions are effective in improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Raver, 2002)? This question is important because it will help to identify the most effective strategies for addressing this problem and improving academic outcomes for these students.

3. What are the long-term effects of interventions to improve attention span on academic performance and success in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs (Raver, 2002)? Attention span is an essential aspect of learning, and it is crucial to understand how interventions to improve it can impact academic performance and success in pre-kindergarten students (Vaughn, 2002).

Pre-kindergarten students are in a crucial stage of their development and are starting to lay the foundation for their future academic careers (Gathercole et al., 2008). Thus, it is essential to understand the impact of interventions to improve attention span on their academic performance and Success (Wasik et al., 2009). This information can provide valuable insights into the development of early childhood education programs, particularly in Head-start programs, where many children from low-income families receive their education. The research question also highlights the importance of considering the long-term effects of interventions (Raver, 2002). While short-term gains in attention span may be observed, it is essential to understand the sustainability of these gains and their impact on academic performance and success over time. Such information can improve the development of early childhood education programs and guide future research in this area.

4. How does parental involvement specifically impact the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs while they are engaged in reading activities?

The role of parental involvement in a child’s education cannot be overstated (Gathercole et al., 2008). The quality and quantity of parental involvement can profoundly impact a child’s academic performance and Success (Gathercole et al., 2008).

In the case of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, it is important to understand how parental involvement impacts their attention span. At the same time, they are engaged in reading activities (Ludwig & Phillips, 2007). It is a crucial area of inquiry, as attention span plays a crucial role in learning and development, particularly during the early years of a child’s education.

To understand the impact of parental involvement on attention span in pre-kindergarten students, it is necessary to consider a range of factors that may influence this relationship (Raver, 2002). For example, the quality of parent-child interactions, the type of support provided by parents, and the level of engagement of parents in their child’s reading activities are all factors that may impact attention span (Pianta et al., 2021). Factors such as the child’s temperament, cultural background, and socioeconomic status may also impact this relationship.

By exploring the impact of parental involvement on attention span in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, the study can contribute to a deeper understanding of the importance of parental involvement in early childhood education and provide practical insights into how to improve the educational experiences of young children (Gathercole et al., 2008). This knowledge can inform the development of effective interventions and programs aimed at improving attention span and academic performance in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs, ultimately contributing to the success and well-being of these children (Raver, 2002).

In summary, the study will provide well-defined research questions, allowing for better insights in addressing the problem area and make meaningful contributions to the literature (Rapport et al., 2001). By answering these questions, the study will provide valuable insights into the factors contributing to short attention spans and effective strategies for addressing this issue in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs (Raver, 2002). Additionally, the research questions provide a comprehensive and focused direction for the study, and their answers can contribute significantly to the body of knowledge in early childhood education (Pianta et al., 2021). By exploring the long-term effects of interventions aimed at improving attention span, the study can provide valuable insights into the development of early childhood education programs and help improve pre-kindergarten students’ academic performance and Success in Head-start programs.

Recommendations

Attention span in reading is a critical factor in literacy development in pre-K students. To ensure that students in a Head-start program have the best chance at success, it is important to focus on strategies to improve their attention spans in reading (Baue & Schanzenbach, 2016). This literature will provide an overview of the research on attention spans in reading and suggest various strategies to help improve the attention spans of pre-K students in Head-start programs (Strand et al., 2019).

Research has shown that several key factors can influence pre-K students’ attention spans in reading. One factor is the quality of the reading material (Kerns et al., 1999). Materials with interesting topics, engaging illustrations, and interactive activities can help to keep pre-K students engaged and help them sustain their attention spans (Kim et al., 2018). Another factor is the length of the reading material; shorter text sections are more likely to keep pre-K students engaged than longer ones. Furthermore, the amount of time spent on reading can affect the attention spans of pre-K students (Vaughn, 2002). Research has shown that students who read for short periods with frequent breaks can better sustain their attention spans than those who read for longer periods without breaks.

Strategies to Improve Attention Spans

Various strategies can be employed to help improve the attention spans of pre-K students in Head-start programs (Antzaka et al., 2017; Armstrong, 2017). First, selecting high-quality materials with interesting topics and engaging illustrations is important. Additionally, text sections should be kept short, with frequent breaks in between (Bauer& Schanzenbach, 2016). Teachers can also provide activities to help support the reading material, such as drawing or colouring activities related to the text. Furthermore, providing students with positive feedback and recognition for their efforts can keep them motivated and engaged. Also, allowing students to share their thoughts and ideas about the material can help further engage them and keep their attention.

Teacher-Directed Reading

Research affirms a positive relationship between affluent experiences during early childhood and later language growth and academic success. Many experts are familiar with the relationship between child language development and parent input; however, much is yet to be learned regarding the relationship between a child’s language growth outcomes and an educator’s language input. Classroom-oriented research is required since the existing research illustrates the differences in the impact of parent and teacher input in association with children’s language development. Most of the children’s vocabulary development and teacher’s language use are satisfactory during book reading interaction. However, there is minimal attention to other forms of a classroom setting (Kirk et al., 2014). Various efforts to alter teachers’ language practices via large-scale intervention yield limited success.

Significance of Considering the Setting

An essential phase to sustain high-quality instructional relations should understand how the entire process can be made neutral without any involvement. Teacher-directed activities can form a classroom environment to provide abundant data regarding implementing superior instructional interaction in Pre-K Students in a Head-start Program setting. Scholarly evidence identifies that pre-k students spend approximately 37% of their school day performing teacher-directed events not limited to literacy, math, science, and other events that are not directly linked to any precise context (Bames et al., 2020). The student spends the rest of the day doing other activities, such as mealtimes and playtime. The different form of contexts avails numerous opportunities for the teacher to instruct, interact and engage with events. Teacher-directed activities can be more intentional, especially when the teacher is executing strategies to enhance the child’s cognitive and language skills. Research indicates that Pre-k educators are more likely to utilize an affluent and thought-provoking language with students during book-reading sessions than free play or mealtimes. Additionally, the teachers are most likely to deliver excellent instructional interaction during sessions that involve large-group surroundings, unlike during meals, play, and routine settings (Blair & Razza, 2007). These activities are focused on enhancing teacher-child association, thus increasing chances for high-quality instructional relationships.

Contextual Changes in Instructional Materials

This section will explore the importance of improving the value of instructional materials to augment learning and teaching. The background of teacher-directed activities can be broken down into sub-contexts depending with the coverage of instructions. These sub-contexts can be a prosperous source of introducing variation in the superiority of instructional interaction. An activity like reading is an example of a teacher-directed practice that different scholars have researched, given its potential to offer language-based cognitive learning during the head start of the program. Pre-k students are expected to experience superior coaching during the storybook reading session because of the mutual routine of mutual book reading, as it designates a diverse group of pedagogical techniques widely accepted for interacting with students in a text. Interactive shared storybook reading sessions should contain techniques such as requesting the students to predict events happening in a particular book before they can read it. The teacher will work with them in discussing the story to aid in understanding and developing relations to the child’s lives and explain the significance of different vocabularies used in the text. These strategies and other activities can play an integral role in engaging children in high-order thinking within the story’s context. To determine the efficiency of this strategy, a study was performed by Hysell (2013) involving pre-k classrooms that serve low-income children. The scholar evaluated the different types of questions educators ask during class activities. The teacher posed several cognitively perplexing and open-ended questions throughout the storybook reading session related to other types of teacher-directed events such as mealtime. The researchers found that storybook reading was providing higher-quality instructional association than other learning tasks.

Science learning is the other sub-context that can facilitate higher-quality instructional association. Posing scientific-related questions has been defined as the attempts to enable pre-k students to understand the natural world around them based on proof. To effectively attract the maximum reading span of the students during this sub-context, the teacher will focus on asking questions that will capture the students’ interest in high-order thinking. Research proves that pre-k students should not be exempted from learning science because, with the necessary support from adults, they can engage in science practices and develop a theoretical understanding as they navigate their environment (White et al., 2020). The current curriculum and state standards for kindergarten include different science concepts such as weather and plants.

The next category of sub-context is math instruction. Teachers can facilitate conversations with the children using informal and formal instruction to enhance their understanding and skills on different concepts important to improve mathematical accomplishment (Klein et al., 2008). These types of interaction can be linked to lower skills, including labeling numbers, counting objects, integrating counting grounded on techniques for tallying, requesting children to recap simple patterns, and offering opportunities to categorize objects into their respective groups. Recent research identifies that many pre-k school teachers focus on engaging their students to lower-level mathematics knowledge and rarely use conversation-based mathematical skills. The morning meeting is an entire group activity that marks the beginning of a preschool day. Even if this sub-context does not provide students with an opportunity to learn a particular content within the area of instruction, it qualifies as a teacher-directed event. This activity is significant for early childhood curriculum, and many schools are already integrating morning meetings or circle time as a daily routine. During this time, the teacher will have an opportunity to orient the students on the activities of the day and lead them in routines, including greeting one another, singing, talking about the weather of the day, taking attendance, and rehearsing academic skills (Bierman et al., 2008). Recent research assessing the effectiveness of circle time identified that the teacher could preside during this time of the day, posing several open-ended questions and introducing interactive exchanges. This differs from the traditional circle setting, where students typically recite and memorize the day’s routine.

Apprenticeship in the Classroom Language

Usage-based theory of language development recognizes the impact of linguistic input in early childhood language development. Adequate groups of complex language must be availed for children to understand equally complex speech. Pre-k students first get exposure to home registers, which can be different from academic registers they will come across in the classroom setting, as the two differ in content and involvement. A home register takes the form of conceptualization of informal talk. It usually discusses matters relating to the tasks, stresses interpersonal relationships, and is similarly common among family speakers (Kook & Greenfield, 2021). This differs substantially from the language used in the classroom setting as it allows the student to experience a seamless transition of academic knowledge. It differs among speakers and relies on lexical aspects to encourage precision and clarity. When the academic register is at the linguistic level, the register comprises academic language characterized by a lot of vocabulary and terms used among specific fields or across various academic disciplines. Vocabulary used in the academic field is employed on rare occasions in casual conversations, although it is found in large volumes within academic contexts. Therefore, when pre-k students in Head-start Programs are exposed to a more significant amount of sophisticated or academic vocabulary will become known to academic vocabulary, which will help them increase their reading span in different subjects such as math, science, religious education, and social studies in higher levels of education. When the register is at the discourse level, the topic or content of the talk will widely focus on the exchange of disciplinary content knowledge in different subjects, including science, math, social studies, and language arts. Preschool children can become proficient in their home language once they enter the school but can have varied comprehension of the classroom register due to a lack of experience before. Different ethnographic and quantitative studies identify that children raised in low-income homes need more experience with academic vocabulary and register specifically. Proficiency in academic language is directly related to outstanding academic success, particularly in association with reading and understanding comprehension. Therefore, the children who are enrolled in pre-k classes with vast familiarity with the academic registry can have a considerable advantage in understanding classroom conversations and examinations compared to the students with less experience with the academic vocabulary and register.

Hybridity and the Growth of Third Spaces

The pre-kindergarten class setting is usually made of numerous poly-contextual activities and spaces. This is different from the more formalized spaces and structures of elementary school settings, which is characterized by whiteboards, desks, and reading table, as the spaces of the elementary school classroom are made of spaces to read, play, nap, and eat. These activities and places encourage different language registers, developing rich learning objectives and the execution of social practices. One outstanding space in many Head Start class settings is the eating area. The Head Start programs provide a meal to the students which are served in a family style and within the confinement of the classroom. Students and their teachers sit around this eating area during lunch and breakfast and eat their meals with the students. The food is passed around in serving dishes, and the teachers teach the students how to serve themselves (LiBetti, 2019). The practice is guided by the Head Start policy, which provisions that every pre-kindergarten must supply the students with nutritious meals daily and provide clear guidance on appropriate family-style meal structure. Therefore, this area is unique because it acts as the bridge between school-home practices and can thus be considered a hybrid space. Hybrid spaces usually comprise different elements of both school and home practices by taking the form of similarity in registers, activities, and social traditions. These spaces are categorized within the child’s zones of proximal growth as they use familiar practices to interact in conversations and meal routines within the relatively newer classroom settings. This form of hybridity can create a conducive environment for language development since mealtime talk between the students and the teacher can support children to transition into the classroom register successfully. In this third space, the teachers and students have the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the discourse patterns of their communities and homes to converse and establish academic language and knowledge supported by the conducive classroom environment.

Computer-based Instruction

Research proves that computer-based interaction has the potential to intensify pre-k students’ reading span due to the ease within which it can be integrated with the school settings and the seamless ability for its users to customize it to suit the different needs of the student (Hercules et al., 2006). Another benefit of this model in so child’s cognitive skills and keep track of their academic progress in various subjects such as language and math.

Training Programs Offered by Computer-based Instruction

Executive Functions Training

These programs are classified under a group of overall purpose mechanisms that control cognition and action. The program comprises three interrelated, albeit distinguished, components that make the consumer move back and forth between different operations, tasks, and mental sets. The user also updates the program, which is a process that needs monitoring and active manipulation of working memory representations and reservation, which is the ability to inhibit an automatic, dominant, or prepotent response intentionally (Huffstetter et al., 2010). These cognitive skills have been identified to have a positive relationship with different socioemotional and academic outcomes, including adaptive learning of related behaviors, mathematical accomplishment, and social competencies.

During the school sessions, kindergarten students must encounter social and academic problems that need them to integrate executive functions successfully. An example is when a student needs to switch from one subject to the other and change from one academic task to the other and from one skill to another to respond to the instruction provided by the teacher. The student must also manipulate and memorize academic information and drop unnecessary information while adding new information to their existing skill set (Juhasz & Boyce, 2022). Nonetheless, children need to showcase robust and automatic responses, such as avoiding getting distracted by their friends and retaining their attention on what the teacher is saying. These executive skills empower children to learn self-regulation from certain behaviors while focusing on improving their academic performance.

Executive functions are central in guaranteeing the student’s successful reading skills development. Therefore, different training programs have been established to empower the children’s executive function skills, starting with the Head-start program. For example, the mind curriculum implements different tools oriented on harmonizing activities embedded within the school curriculum and is not limited to tasks to self-regulate confidential speech. The program also comprises intense dramatic role-playing and enables attention and memory of the concepts learned in class. Bierman et al. (2020) performed research in one school that involved children aged between 4 and 5 years who had received pre-k education for one year. Their teachers had spent about 80% of the school day promoting executive function skills (Hindman et al., 2012). In another school, children were assigned to act out tasks and collaborate with their teachers to achieve specified aims. In both incidences, the participants involved in the study were preschoolers, and the study’s outcome indicated that the students were able to improve their executive function skills. The research identifies that the drawback of this program includes that implementing these types of programs requires highly trained teachers and psychologists to introduce methodological transitions to the academic system successfully. Another limitation is that integrating these programs in pre-kindergarten schools can consume a lot of resources and precise reforms to be implemented by education policymakers.

Math School-based Programs

Other than executive function empowerment, mathematical interventions have been linked to improving student academic excellence. For instance, Johnson et al. (2020) developed a computer-based program within which the trained tutors would empower a child’s mathematical skill by placing them in small groups and working with them in integrating different strategies such as thinking aloud, modeling, error correction, and guided practice. The results of the study revealed that there were meaningful improvements in the children’s mathematical skills and success levels. Another study by Cohen-Vogel et al. (2022) revealed that children’s mathematics knowledge could be strengthened by integrating three training techniques, including teachers. This enables them to deliver training that inclines towards empowering the child’s mathematical knowledge. The training would also enable the teachers to successfully implement these interventions and guide parents to assist the students with mathematical assignments assigned to them to complete at home. Even with these improvements, the different types of training needs teachers to prepare general assignments which will need customized teachings to suit the educational needs of each student. However, relying on computerized activities enables every student to progress at their own pace. Also, computerized mathematics can incorporate a mathematics game relatable to the individual child’s routine and be adapted to meet the precise level of the child’s performance.

Parental Involvement Programs

Implementing a school-based parental involvement program is extremely important because numerous social scientists uphold that parental engagement is one of the most potent forces to amplify the school outcome, especially the pre-kindergarten. Many sociologists and educators uphold that parental involvement in modern society can be particularly salient given the different sociological pressures facing children, the heightened family dissolution rates, and the child raised in two-parent working families. These aspects are common in the United States, although they are more prevalent among many families (Bierman et al., 2020). This is one thing that pushes the parent to become actively involved in their child’s education whenever possible. Active parental engagement has resulted in higher academic accomplishments than when parents remain sidelined. Indeed, current research supporting this conclusion is consistent and powerful among different scholarly findings precisely when the school integrates more than one subtle element of parental involvement. It is possible that while voluntary efforts of such modern family engagement produce positive outcomes, pre-kindergarten head start program is not 100% effective.

With these considerations, the theoretical framework to use in assessing the effectiveness of parental involvement programs in pre-kindergarten is relatively different from that of focusing on addressing the effectiveness of voluntary expression acquired from parental involvement. In the situation involving the vocational expression of the mother and father participation, the primary issue narrows down to the extent to which the parents can bring a difference in improving the test scores and grades of their little ones. When it comes to parental involvement, many social scientists, both the proponents and opponents of the motion, agree that parental contribution can make a lot of difference along these lines of thinking. More consensus is needed when responding to formal programs by including parents actively in their children’s education. The argument instead shifts to whether the schools can assist parents, particularly the disinterested parents, to improve their children’s performance. The importance of this type of theoretical debate was recently debated by Teacher’s College Record, where questions about whether schools can successfully train parents on how they can actively engage in their child’s education (Hindman et al., 2012). Another question posed is whether there are effective strategies that can motivate parents who appear unbothered to participate.

Types of Parental Involvement Programs to Benefit Students

Assessing the programs that can enable parents to become more involved in their student’s education is essential because it not only supports the impact of these programs but it brings clarity on the types of elements of the programs that can produce the most meaningful impact . This type of information is essential for parents and teachers to understand to ensure that every parent can positively impact their child’s life. If the teachers have clear information on the situations that can bring them closer to the parents, then pre-kindergarten education could be more effective.

One of the most effective strategies for involvement is engaging the parent and the child in shared reading and appointing parents to check in with their child’s homework. Another strategy is forming social media groups to allow teachers to communicate with one another and form partnerships to solve problems facing their children (Juhasz & Boyce, 2022). The government is focusing on integrating situation-specific parental involvement within Head Start training, producing a significant impact that could engage them in the long term. Voluntary actions of parental participation are linked to tremendous educational results. The involuntary parental behaviors have been pinpointed to be empowered by the encouragement of the school. However, the impact sizes that arise from involuntary parental involvement cannot equate to the outcomes of voluntary parent participation. Active participation is more effective because it allows both the teacher and the parent to work on a specified goal to help their child achieve the best.

As previously noted, the questions posed on the Teacher’s College Record featuring a social scientist asking essential questions on the effectiveness of salient elements of voluntary parental participation are adequately teachable to the essential elements of the school-oriented involvement programs. Based on the outcomes by different scholars, parental involvement has the most significant outcomes. The study has significant programs intended to encourage parental support for their children’s schooling, which are positively related to accomplishment for children. According to Cstro et al., (2004), these analyses emerged effect sizes that were typically small compared to those in other studies that surveyed voluntary parental involvement. Parents are already excited towards supporting the progress of education for their children. There is a positive relationship between programs that parents have been given active involvement and educational results and they are suggesting that the process can become casual. This means that academic achievement in the future will be fine with the presence of parental engagement programs. Instead, the reverse will be accurate.

Nonetheless, other research findings identify that mothers and fathers who provide vast amounts of support for their children will experience a more positive impact compared to the parents who only agree to participate in their child’s program because it demands them to do so. Therefore, future studies must assess whether students can benefit from this involvement even in higher learning institutions. Some studies identify that some academically weak students suffer greatly when their parents are not involved in their education (Karweit, 1989). Encouraging parents to become more involved in their child’s education through the aforementioned ways will spawn a considerable improvement in their child’s reading span and general outcomes even in later years.

Parental Involvement During Family Mealtime Conversation

Numerous studies identify substantial evidence linking a child’s receptive and expressive vocabulary development and family mealtime conversations. Since the historical time, family mealtime conversations have always been perceived as culturally derived subjects that differ depending on the content, nature and type of talks families have across social classes, ethnicities and races. Conversations held during family meal time provide the parents and children with an opportunity to explore different events that are happening currently, get updated on family activities, plan events, solve problems and develop suitable etiquette. Most of these roles occur via an extensive discourse comprising explanations and narratives (Hysell, 2013). Adults can take advantage of this extended discourse with their children which has been linked to an increment in the ability of the child to learn vocabularies since more extended conversations contain detailed coverage of topics and use sophisticated or academic vocabulary. In addition, mealtime conversations involve the use of complex language that describes events, considers different hypotheticals, and develops a wide variety of participants, which can help the child learn how they can connect the different elements in their environment to strengthen their reading abilities in class settings.

Conclusion

In conclusion, attention span in reading is an important factor in literacy development in pre-K students (Brown et al., 2005). To help improve the attention spans of pre-K students in Head-start programs, it is important to focus on selecting high-quality materials with interesting topics and engaging illustrations, as well as providing students with activities to support the reading material, positive feedback and recognition, and an opportunity to share their thoughts and ideas (Barkley, 2002). With these strategies, pre-K students in Head-start programs can be given the best chance at success.

Research Questions

The study will explore the following questions:

1. What are the underlying causes of short attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs?

2. What interventions are effective in improving attention spans in pre-kindergarten students in Head Start programs?

3. What are the long-term effects of interventions to improve attention span on academic performance and success in pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs?

4. How does parental involvement specifically impact the attention span of pre-kindergarten students in Head-start programs while they are engaged in reading activities?

Chapter 3: Methodology

Participants

This section should include the following elements: (a) the target population or sample (to which it is hoped the findings will be applicable) should be defined, consistent with the Statement of the Problem and the Research Question(s) sections; (b) the population from which the sample will actually be drawn should be specified (this should also include demographic information such as age, gender, and ethnicity); and (c) procedures for selecting the sample should be outlined, including justification for the sampling method (i.e., sampling procedure).

Instruments

This section will detail each data-collection instrument. The relevant information pertaining to each instrument should include (a) the source or developers of the instrument, (b) validity and reliability information, and (c) other salient information (e.g., number of items in each scale, subscales).

Procedures

Design

The
design is the actual structure or framework that provides the “when,” or time in which data will be collected (e.g., correlational approach with a predictive design). The specific type of design should be discussed and supported with a citation.

Data Collection Procedures

Detail how the data will be collected (i.e., the methodological steps). Write this section in future tense. Convert to past tense where appropriate once data have been collected. The Procedures
section is based directly on the research questions and the design of choice (i.e., this is the “how to” section of the examination) and should be written step by step in a linear fashion with a timeline. Steps pertaining to the
control of issues related to internal and external validity should be discussed here.

Data Analysis Procedures

Indicate the appropriate data analyses that will be used in the investigation. These data analyses should be based on the research questions and the research design selected for the study. Specify the procedures for reducing and coding the data. For quantitative studies, subsequent data analyses should include summary descriptive statistics and inferential statistical tests (e.g., independent or dependent
t test, ANOVA, and chi-square). For qualitative studies, the procedures to be followed for the analyses must also be addressed.

Chapter 4: Results

Introduction

Include a brief intro to your study.

Demographic Characteristics

If applicable.

Data Analysis

Results presented in sequence and relative to each research question. Only the results are presented without a rationale or discussion.

Research Question 1

Be sure to include the appropriate use of statistical or qualitative language to present data and use tables and figures to support your findings.

Research Question 2

Chapter 5: Discussion

Introduction

Provide overview of the study

Summary of Findings

Include a summary of the findings presented in Chapter 4. Overview and keep stats to a minimum.

Interpretation of Findings

Discuss the meaning of your findings; elaborate on expected and unexpected results.

Context of Findings

Findings are linked to relevant research.

Implications of Findings

Discuss the implication of your findings; what do they mean in terms of theory, research, and practice.

Limitations of the Study

Discuss study limitations (these should be removed from Chapter 3), including any threats to internal and external validity.

Future Research Directions

Discuss your recommendations for future research.

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Chapter 4: Findings Comment by Dr Shery Bennett: Leave this here for the final paper.

This chapter usually has the most variation in its organization. Begin with an introductory paragraph to describe how you will present your findings in this chapter. Then, restate you research questions, as well as the research approach that you have used. This chapter present your data that should include quotes from interviews with participants and/or selected texts from analyzed documents, as evidence of the significant findings and themes. These are generated from analyses of your transcripts, documents, observation checklists and/ or other data sources.

Chapter 5: Discussion Comment by Dr Shery Bennett: You will just retain the this for final paper,

In this chapter, you will interpret your findings from Chapter 4 (with references). Incorporate the following: (a) preconceptions and ideas as discussed in your introduction as well as through the analysis process (with references), (b) place your findings in the context of the existing literature and in some cases, practice (with references). (c) how your findings are similar or dissimilar to previous research findings.

This is the where we hear your voice in the dissertation. Include the following:

Meanings and understandings

· Implications of the study

· Relevance of the study

Interpretations and reflection:

· Significance and substance

· Importance to discipline

· Critique of findings with recommendations for change and future research

Conclusion