Posted: April 24th, 2025

Social Science – Sociology sociology book assignment chapter 1

    

General Discussion Board (DB) Expectation

Post 1 is your initial       response to the prompt based on what you learned from the assigned       material. Initial posts must contain appropriate APA formatted in-text       citations Each post must be a minimum of 200 words and the word count       (WC) should be included before the reference(s) at the end of your posts.

1. Follow basic writing rules for spelling, grammar, sentence      structure, capitalization, punctuation, tense agreement, etc. Please proof      read and edit.
2. Use your classmate’s name in your response posts.
3. Late posts are welcome but will incur a penalty.

Discussion Boards (DB) are one of the most important learning activities in our class. They are the classroom discussions of the online environment. Please put time, thought, and effort into your posts. Also, remember to respect the views of others even if you disagree. There is a professional way to express opposing views. Let’s take the opportunity to make our discussions a meaningful learning experience! 

Tips for Success: Read the chapters for the week first. Keep your book next to you while you’re developing your responses, so you can refer to it as needed. Don’t have your book yet? Not a problem. The information you need to complete this assignment can be found in the weekly PPTs/ Lecture Notes.

  

Applying Sociology

Reminders

• Each post must be 200+ words and include a Word Count (WC) at      the end of your post, before your reference(s).
• APA formatted in-text citations and references are required for      your initial post (and in response posts if assigned material is used)
• Proof read and edit before uploading your posts.
        .

Required Sources

• Read Chapter 1 Understanding      Sociology, in the Schaefer textbook

  Specifically, review the information under the headings Early       Thinkers and Twentieth Century Developments

Assignment

Post 1: What Did You Learn? 

Review the sociology theorists profiled in the chapter and then answer the following questions: 

• Whose work seems most relevant to today’s social problems      (e.g., gender inequality, racial/ethnic inequality, homophobia, poverty,      crime, health care, etc.)?
• In what ways is their work still relevant?  How might      their ideas inform current efforts to promote equality?
• Be sure to include appropriate APA formatted in-text citations      and references

1

Understanding Sociology

One of the things sociologists study is how people organize themselves into groups to perform tasks

necessary to society. Here, volunteers gather to help clean up a river.

Ariel Skelley/Blend Images

‣ INSIDE

What Is Sociology?

What Is Sociological Theory?

The Development of Sociology

Major Theoretical Perspectives

Taking Sociology with You

Appendix: Careers in Sociology

Page 2

What is life like for low-wage workers in one of the most affluent areas of the United States?

Sociologists Vicki Smith and Brian Halpin interviewed these essential but overlooked workers to bring

their lives into focus.

kozmoat98/Getty Images

“Napa Valley, California, north of San Francisco, is known for its wineries and gourmet foods. The region

attracts affluent tourists from all over the world to enjoy hot-air balloon rides and luxury vineyard tours.

But the view that most tourists and affluent residents see does not include the low-wage workers who

make their comfortable lifestyle possible. To bring the lives of these invisible laborers into focus,

sociologists Vicki Smith and Brian Halpin conducted in-depth interviews with low-wage workers about

their current job situations and their plans for the future.

Many interviewees told Smith and Halpin about ways they tried to improve their situations: they were

always trying to “learn new skills in their current occupational niche.”

Their current occupations included food service, landscaping, cleaning homes and offices, and

construction, with some respondents holding jobs in more than one sector. They typically patched

together full- and part-time work, devoting themselves to searching for better jobs, learning new skills,

taking classes, and obtaining credentials that would result in more satisfying lives. Many interviewees

told Smith and Halpin about ways they tried to improve their situations: they were always trying to

“learn new skills in their current occupational niche, such as a housecleaner learning how to clean

offices, or a worker who sets up tables and chairs at events for a catering company learning how to

make special desserts.”

Because of the temporary, part-time, and seasonal nature of their jobs, the Napa Valley workers are

always looking ahead. One restaurant worker, William, described how he created his repertoire of

kitchen-based, transferable skills:

[I]f you go to a restaurant, most of the time you can learn pretty fast. And you can learn stuff here and

take it to another restaurant; it’s easy to do. You just need to pay attention. You have to want to learn

to ask questions. You can’t just stand there; you have to work, to show them something.

According to Smith and Halpin, “Low-wage workers can be a productive, high-quality workforce despite

lacking the human capital of more highly educated, professional workers. Research repeatedly finds that

these workers hold strong work ethics, desire stable employment, and are willing to learn.”

Nevertheless, they find it hard to escape into middle-class jobs.

Low-wage workers live difficult lives throughout the United States. In the affluent Napa Valley, their

situation has been made even more complicated by the wildfires that frequent the region each summer

and the COVID-19 pandemic. Nevertheless, these workers, like people everywhere, are continually

looking for ways to improve their social and economic situations.”

Sources: Halpin and Smith 2017:336; Smith and Halpin 2014.

By interviewing low-wage workers whose labor is often hidden from public view, sociologists Vicki Smith

and Brian Halpin were able to go beyond publicly reported employment data or corporate annual

reports. Their research let them reveal the efforts that low-paid workers make to stay afloat and

perhaps get ahead in Napa Valley.

The fruit of these workers’ labor is enjoyed by people who live in and visit Napa Valley, as well as by

those who consume the wine and other luxury goods produced there and shipped worldwide. Yet few

consumers ever interact directly with these laborers. The work of scholars such as Smith and Halpin lets

us learn more about those who are just getting by, even in the best economic times, throughout the

nation and around the globe.

As a field of study, sociology is extremely broad in scope. You will see throughout this book the range of

topics sociologists investigate—from immigration to suicide, from Amish society to global economic

patterns, from peer pressure to genetic engineering. Sociology looks at how others influence our

behavior; how major social institutions like the government, religion, and the economy affect us; and

how we ourselves affect other individuals, groups, and even organizations.

How did sociology develop? In what ways does it differ from other social sciences? This chapter will

explore the nature of sociology as both a field of inquiry and an exercise of the “sociological

imagination.” We’ll look at the discipline as a science and consider its relationship to other social

sciences. We’ll meet four pioneering thinkers—Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, Karl Marx, and W. E. B.

DuBois—and examine the theoretical perspectives that grew out of their work. We’ll note some of the

practical applications for sociological theory and research. Finally, we’ll see how sociology helps us to

develop a sociological imagination. For those students interested in exploring career opportunities in

sociology, the chapter closes with a special appendix.

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What Is Sociology?

“What has sociology got to do with me or with my life?” As a student, you might well have asked this

question when you signed up for your introductory sociology course. To answer it, consider these

points: Are you influenced by what you see on television? Do you use the Internet? Did you vote in the

last election? Are you familiar with binge drinking on campus? Do you use alternative medicine? These

are just a few of the everyday life situations described in this book that sociology can shed light on. But

as the opening excerpt indicates, sociology also looks at large social issues. We use sociology to

investigate why thousands of jobs have moved from the United States to developing nations, what

social forces promote prejudice, what leads someone to join a social movement and work for social

change, how access to computer technology can reduce social inequality, and why relationships

between men and women in Seattle differ from those in Singapore.

Sociology is, simply, the scientific study of social behavior and human groups. It focuses on social

relationships; how those relationships influence people’s behavior; and how societies, the sum total of

those relationships, develop and change.

The Sociological Imagination

In attempting to understand social behavior, sociologists rely on a particular type of critical thinking. A

leading sociologist, C. Wright Mills, described such thinking as the sociological imagination—an

awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society, both today and in the past

(Mills [1959] 2000a). This awareness allows all of us (not just sociologists) to comprehend the links

between our immediate, personal social settings and the remote, impersonal social world that

surrounds and helps to shape us.

A key element in the sociological imagination is the ability to view one’s own society as an outsider

would, rather than only from the perspective of personal experiences and cultural biases. Consider

something as simple as sporting events. On college campuses in the United States, thousands of

students cheer well-trained football players. In parts of South America and the Caribbean, spectators

gather around two cages, each holding a finch. The covers are lifted, and the owner of the first bird to

sing 50 songs wins a trophy, a cash prize, and great prestige. In speed singing as in football, eager

spectators debate the merits of their favorites and bet on the outcome of the events. Yet what is

considered a normal sporting event in one part of the world is considered unusual in another part (Rueb

2015).

The sociological imagination allows us to go beyond personal experiences and observations to

understand broader public issues. Divorce, for example, is unquestionably a personal hardship for a

husband and wife who split apart. However, C. Wright Mills advocated using the sociological imagination

to view divorce not as simply an individual’s personal problem but rather as a societal concern. Using

this perspective, we can see that an increase in the divorce rate actually redefines a major social

institution—the family. Today’s households frequently include stepparents and half-siblings whose

parents have divorced and remarried. Through the complexities of the blended family, this private

concern becomes a public issue that affects schools, government agencies, businesses, and religious

institutions.

The sociological imagination is an empowering tool. It allows us to look beyond a limited understanding

of human behavior to see the world and its people in a new way and through a broader lens than we

might otherwise use. It may be as simple as understanding why a roommate prefers country music to

hip-hop, or it may open up a whole different way of understanding other populations in the world. For

example, in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11, 2001, many

citizens wanted to understand how Muslims throughout the world perceived their country, and why.

From time to time this textbook will offer you the chance to exercise your sociological imagination in a

variety of situations.

use your sociological imagination

You are walking down the street in your city or hometown. In looking around you, you can’t help

noticing that half or more of the people you see are overweight. How do you explain your observation?

If you were C. Wright Mills, how do you think you would explain it?

Sociology and the Social Sciences

Is sociology a science? The term science refers to the body of knowledge obtained by methods based on

systematic observation. Just like other scientific disciplines, sociology involves the organized, systematic

study of phenomena (in this case, human behavior) in order to enhance understanding. All scientists,

whether studying mushrooms or murderers, attempt to collect precise information through methods of

study that are as objective as possible. They rely on careful recording of observations and accumulation

of data.

Of course, there is a great difference between sociology and physics, between psychology and

astronomy. For this reason, the sciences are commonly divided into natural and social sciences. Natural

science is the study of the physical features of nature and the ways in which they interact and change.

Astronomy, biology, chemistry, geology, and physics are all natural sciences. Social science is the study

of the social features of humans and the ways in which they interact and change. The social sciences

include sociology, anthropology, economics, history, psychology, and political science.

These social science disciplines have a common focus on the social behavior of people, yet each has a

particular orientation. Anthropologists usually study past cultures and preindustrial societies that

continue today, as well as the origins of humans. Economists explore the ways in which people produce

and exchange goods and services, along with money and other resources. Historians are concerned with

the peoples and events of the past and their significance for us today. Political scientists study

international relations, the workings of government, and the exercise of power and authority.

Psychologists investigate personality and individual behavior. So what do sociologists focus on? They

study the influence that society has on people’s attitudes and behavior and the ways in which people

interact and shape society. Because humans are social animals, sociologists examine our social

relationships scientifically. The range of the relationships they investigate is vast, as the current list of

sections in the American Sociological Association suggests (Table 1-1).

TABLE 1-1 SECTIONS OF THE AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

Aging and the Life Course

Alcohol, Drugs, and Tobacco

Altruism, Morality, and Social Solidarity

Animals and Society

Asia and Asian America

Children and Youth

Collective Behavior and Social Movements

Communication, Information Technologies, and Media

Community and Urban Sociology

Comparative-Historical Sociology

Crime, Law, and Deviance

Disability in Society

Economic Sociology

Environmental Sociology

Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis

Evolution, Biology, and Society

Family

Global and Transnational Sociology

History of Sociology and Social Thought

Inequality, Poverty, and Mobility

International Migration

Labor and Labor Movements

Latina/o Sociology

Marxist Sociology

Mathematical Sociology

Medical Sociology

Methodology

Organizations, Occupations, and Work

Peace, War, and Social Conflict

Political Economy of the World-System

Political Sociology

Race, Gender, and Class

Racial and Ethnic Minorities

Rationality and Society

Science, Knowledge, and Technology

Social Psychology

Sociological Practice and Public Sociology

Sociology of Body and Embodiment

Sociology of Consumers and Consumption

Sociology of Culture

Sociology of Development

Sociology of Education

Sociology of Emotions

Sociology of Human Rights

Sociology of Indigenous Peoples

Sociology of Law

Sociology of Mental Health

Sociology of Population

Sociology of Religion

Sociology of Sex and Gender

Sociology of Sexualities

Teaching and Learning

Theory

Think about It Which of these topics do you think would interest you the most? Why?

The range of sociological issues is very broad. For example, sociologists who belong to the Animals and

Society section of the ASA may study the animal rights movement; those who belong to the Sociology of

Sexualities section may study global sex workers or the LGBTQ movements. Economic sociologists may

investigate globalization or consumerism, among many other topics.

Source: American Sociological Association 2023a.

Page 4

Sociology is the scientific study of social behavior and human

groups.

Rawpixel.com/Shutterstock

Let’s consider how different social scientists might study the issue of climate change. Psychologists

would look at the impact on the well-being of individuals who live and work in the areas most vulnerable

to the impact of climate change, such as flood-prone areas along the coasts. Political scientists would

consider the differences between countries, states, and cities that take steps to combat climate change.

They would also consider how increasingly politicians are unable to avoid being questioned about their

own position on climate change at election time. And economists would consider how, through climate

change, the unintended effects of human activity affect long-term economic growth and well-being.

What approach would sociologists take? They would be interested in why a relatively large number of

Americans deny that climate change is occurring or feel human activities are not responsible. In 2019,

nearly 20 percent of the U.S. public held those views, compared to less than 5 percent in Germany,

Great Britain, or China. Sociology moves us past viewing individuals as the primary agents producing

carbon emissions and instead sees that individual actions are embedded in the workings of society as a

whole. How individuals confront climate change is constrained by social, economic, and political

dynamics.

Similarly, sociology considers how the impact of climate change is not evenly felt and demonstrates that

the poor are among the most vulnerable, both in the United States and around the world. Poor people

often live in low-lying areas most vulnerable to floods and storms, and poor nations lack the means to

build protective infrastructure. Social protests and movements to try to mobilize people to confront the

human contribution to climate change would also be a prime focus of sociological analysis (Dunlap and

Brulle 2019; Milman and Harvey 2019).

As the world considers issues related to climate change, sociologists use a variety of insights, including

why people differ in their willingness to accept that human activity affects the global environment.

Fran/Cartoon Stock

Sociologists would take a similar approach to studying episodes of extreme violence and hatred. In 2017,

the nation was shocked by the open display of pro-Nazi and pro–Ku Klux Klan sympathy by marchers in

Charlottesville, Virginia, at a “Unite the Right” rally protesting the removal of a statue of Confederate

General Robert E. Lee. Months earlier, a lone gunman with leftist leanings opened fire at a Republican

congressional baseball practice, shooting four members of Congress. Observers struggled to explain

these individual and collective events by placing them in a larger social context. For sociologists in

particular, these events raised numerous issues and topics for study, including the role of social media

as a platform for extremist thought, growing anger against government and people in authority, the gun

control debate, and the inadequacy of the nation’s mental health system.

Page 5

Besides doing research, sociologists have a long history of advising government agencies on how to

respond to disasters. Certainly the poverty of the Gulf Coast region complicated the challenge of

evacuating New Orleans in 2005. With Hurricane Katrina bearing down on the Gulf Coast, thousands of

poor inner-city residents had no automobiles or other means of escaping the storm. Added to that

difficulty was the high incidence of disability in the area. New Orleans ranked second among the nation’s

70 largest cities in the proportion of people over age 65 who were disabled—56 percent. Moving

wheelchair-bound residents to safety requires specially equipped vehicles, to say nothing of handicap-

accessible accommodations in public shelters. Clearly, officials must consider these factors in developing

evacuation plans (Bureau of the Census 2005b).

Sociological analysis of the disaster did not end when the floodwaters receded. Indeed, several steps

were taken that improved the response to hurricanes Harvey and Irma, which hit Texas and Florida in

2017. These included:

Requiring communities to develop workable disaster response plans in advance.

Delivering emergency supplies to secure holding areas before the storms struck.

Permitting prior approval for taking action rather than requiring plan submission after the disaster.

Identifying emergency shelters that take pets to avoid people remaining at home to safeguard their

pets.

Ending federal prohibition against accepting volunteer responders, especially when the scope of the

disaster increases.

Tragically, many Katrina victims had relocated to Houston, where they then had to be sheltered again

after Harvey struck in 2017, but they often expressed the realization that disaster response had

improved. However, just a month later the slow response in the aftermath of Hurricane Maria on Puerto

Rico, with most of the island left without clean water, power, or cell phone service for weeks, left many

scholars looking for still further ways to improve both disaster preparedness and response (Carey 2017;

Philips 2017).

Throughout this textbook, you will see how sociologists develop theories and conduct research to study

and better understand societies. And you will be encouraged to use your sociological imagination to

examine the United States (and other societies) from the viewpoint of a respectful but questioning

outsider.

Sociology and Common Sense

Sociology focuses on the study of human behavior. Yet we all have experience with human behavior and

at least some knowledge of it. All of us might well have theories about why people become homeless,

for example. Our theories and opinions typically come from common sense—that is, from our

experiences and conversations, from what we read, from what we see in social media, and so forth.

Page 6

What Is Sociological Theory?

Why do people die by suicide? One traditional commonsense answer is that people inherit the desire to

kill themselves. Another view is that sunspots drive people to take their lives. These explanations may

not seem especially convincing to contemporary researchers, but they represent beliefs widely held as

recently as 1900.

Sociologists are not particularly interested in why any one individual dies by suicide; they are more

concerned with identifying the social forces that systematically cause some people to take their own

lives. To undertake this research, sociologists develop a theory that offers a general explanation of

suicidal behavior.

We can think of theories as attempts to explain events, forces, materials, ideas, or behavior in a

comprehensive manner. In sociology, a theory is a set of statements that seeks to explain problems,

actions, or behavior. An effective theory may have both explanatory and predictive power. That is, it can

help us to see the relationships among seemingly isolated phenomena, as well as to understand how

one type of change in an environment leads to other changes.

The World Health Organization (2019b) estimates that more than 800,000 people die from suicide every

year. Over a hundred years ago, a sociologist tried to look at suicide data scientifically.

Émile Durkheim

([1897] 1951) developed a highly original theory about the relationship between suicide and social

factors. Durkheim was primarily concerned not with the personalities of individual suicide victims, but

rather with suicide rates and how they varied from country to country. As a result, when he looked at

the number of reported suicides in France, England, and Denmark in 1869, he also noted the total

population of each country in order to determine the rate of suicide in each nation. He found that

whereas England had only 67 reported suicides per million inhabitants, France had 135 per million and

Denmark had 277 per million. The question then became “Why did Denmark have a comparatively high

rate of reported suicide?”

Durkheim went much deeper into his investigation of suicide rates. The result was his landmark work

Suicide, published in 1897. Durkheim refused to accept unproved explanations regarding suicide,

including the beliefs that inherited tendencies or cosmic forces caused such deaths. Instead, he focused

on social factors, such as the cohesiveness or lack of cohesiveness of religious, social, and occupational

groups.

Durkheim’s research suggested that suicide, although it is a solitary act, is related to group life. He found

that people without religious affiliations had a higher suicide rate than those who were affiliated; the

unmarried had much higher rates than married people; and soldiers had a higher rate than civilians. In

addition, there seemed to be higher rates of suicide in times of peace than in times of war and

revolution, and in times of economic instability and recession rather than in times of prosperity.

Durkheim concluded that the suicide rates of a society reflected the extent to which people were or

were not integrated into the group life of the society.

use your sociological imagination

If you were Durkheim’s successor in his research on suicide, how would you investigate the factors that

may explain the increase in suicide rates among young people in the United States today?

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Émile Durkheim, like many other social scientists, developed a theory to explain how individual behavior

can be understood within a social context. He pointed out the influence of groups and societal forces on

what had always been viewed as a highly personal act. Clearly, Durkheim offered a more scientific

explanation for the causes of suicide than that of inherited tendencies or sunspots. His theory has

predictive power, since it suggests that suicide rates will rise or fall in conjunction with certain social and

economic changes.

Nicholas Pitt/Digital Vision/Getty Images

Of course, a theory—even the best of theories—is not a final statement about human behavior.

Durkheim’s theory of suicide is no exception. Sociologists continue to examine factors that contribute to

differences in suicide rates around the world and to a particular society’s rate of suicide. In Las Vegas,

and Nevada as a whole, for example, sociologists have observed that the chances of dying by suicide are

strikingly high—about 45 percent higher than those in the United States as a whole. Noting Durkheim’s

emphasis on the relationship between suicide and social isolation, researchers have suggested that Las

Vegas’s rapid growth and constant influx of tourists have undermined the community’s sense of

permanence, even among longtime residents. Although gambling—or more accurately, losing while

gambling—may seem a likely precipitating factor in suicides there, careful study of the data has allowed

researchers to dismiss that explanation. What happens in Vegas may stay in Vegas, but the sense of

community cohesiveness that the rest of the country enjoys may be lacking (Bekker 2019).

thinking CRITICALLY

Can you think of any other explanation for the high suicide rate in Las Vegas? Does that explanation

agree with Durkheim’s theory?

The Development of Sociology

People have always been curious about sociological matters—how we get along with others, what we

do for a living, whom we select as our leaders. Philosophers and religious authorities of ancient and

medieval societies made countless observations about human behavior. They did not test or verify those

observations scientifically; nevertheless, their observations often became the foundation for moral

codes. Several of these early social philosophers correctly predicted that a systematic study of human

behavior would emerge one day. Beginning in the 19th century, European theorists made pioneering

contributions to the development of a science of human behavior.

Early Thinkers

Auguste Comte

The 19th century was an unsettling time in France. The French monarchy had been deposed in the

revolution of 1789, and Napoleon had suffered defeat in his effort to conquer Europe. Amid this chaos,

philosophers considered how society might be improved. Auguste Comte (1798–1857), credited with

being the most influential of the philosophers of the early 1800s, believed that a theoretical science of

society and a systematic investigation of behavior were needed to improve society. He coined the term

sociology to apply to the science of human behavior.

Writing in the 1800s, Comte feared that the excesses of the French Revolution had permanently

impaired France’s stability. Yet he hoped that the systematic study of social behavior would eventually

lead to more rational human interactions. In Comte’s hierarchy of the sciences, sociology was at the top.

He called it the “queen,” and its practitioners “scientist-priests.” This French theorist did not simply give

sociology its name; he presented a rather ambitious challenge to the fledgling discipline.

Harriet Martineau

Scholars learned of Comte’s works largely through translations by the English sociologist Harriet

Martineau (1802–1876). But Martineau was a pathbreaker in her own right: she offered insightful

observations of the customs and social practices of both her native Britain and the United States.

Martineau’s book Society in America ([1837] 1962) examined religion, politics, child rearing, and

immigration in the young nation. It gave special attention to social class distinctions and to such factors

as gender and race. Martineau ([1838] 1989) also wrote the first book on sociological methods.

Harriet Martineau was a pioneer of sociology who studied social behavior both in her native England

and in the United States. Martineau proposed some of the methods still used by sociologists, including

systematic observation.

Alonzo Chappel/Georgios Kollidas/Alamy Stock Photo

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Martineau’s writings emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade, health, and population could

have on social problems. She spoke out in favor of the rights of women, the emancipation of slaves, and

religious tolerance. Later in life, deafness did not keep her from being an activist. In Martineau’s ([1837]

1962) view, intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer observations of social conditions; they

should act on their convictions in a manner that will benefit society. That is why Martineau conducted

research on the nature of female employment and pointed to the need for further investigation of the

issue (Deegan 2003; Hill and Hoecker-Drysdale 2001).

Herbert Spencer

Another important early contributor to the discipline of sociology was Herbert Spencer (1820–1903). A

relatively prosperous Victorian Englishman, Spencer (unlike Martineau) did not feel compelled to correct

or improve society; instead, he merely hoped to understand it better. Drawing on Charles Darwin’s

study On the Origin of Species, Spencer applied the concept of evolution of the species to societies in

order to explain how they change, or evolve, over time. Similarly, he adapted Darwin’s evolutionary

view of the “survival of the fittest” by arguing that it is “natural” that some people are rich while others

are poor.

Spencer’s approach to societal change was extremely popular in his lifetime. Unlike Comte, Spencer

suggested that since societies are bound to change eventually, one need not be highly critical of present

social arrangements or work actively for social change. This viewpoint appealed to many influential

people in England and the United States who had a vested interest in the status quo and were suspicious

of social thinkers who endorsed change.

Émile Durkheim

Émile Durkheim made many pioneering contributions to sociology, including his important theoretical

work on suicide. The son of a rabbi, Durkheim (1858–1917) was educated in both France and Germany.

He established an impressive academic reputation and was appointed one of the first professors of

sociology in France. Above all, Durkheim will be remembered for his insistence that behavior must be

understood within a larger social context, not just in individualistic terms.

To give one example of this emphasis, Durkheim ([1912] 2001) developed a fundamental thesis to help

explain all forms of society. Through intensive study of the Arunta, an Australian tribe, he focused on the

functions that religion performed and underscored the role of group life in defining what we consider to

be religion. Durkheim concluded that like other forms of group behavior, religion reinforces a group’s

solidarity.

Another of Durkheim’s main interests was the consequences of work in modern societies. In his view,

the growing division of labor in industrial societies, as workers’ tasks became more and more

specialized, led to what he called “anomie.” Anomie refers to the loss of direction felt in a society when

social control of individual behavior has become ineffective. Often, the state of anomie occurs during a

time of profound social change, when people have lost their sense of purpose or direction. In a period of

anomie, people are so confused and unable to cope with the new social environment that they may

resort to death by suicide.

Durkheim was concerned about the dangers that alienation, loneliness, and isolation might pose for

modern industrial societies. He shared Comte’s belief that sociology should provide direction for social

change. As a result, he advocated the creation of new social groups—mediators between the

individual’s family and the state—that would provide a sense of belonging for members of huge,

impersonal societies. Unions would be an example of such groups.

Like many other sociologists, Durkheim did not limit his interests to one aspect of social behavior. Later

in this book we will consider his thinking on crime and punishment, religion, and the workplace. Few

sociologists have had such a dramatic impact on so many different areas within the discipline.

Max Weber

Another important early theorist was Max Weber (pronounced vay-ber). Born in Germany, Weber

(1864–1920) studied legal and economic history, but gradually developed an interest in sociology.

Eventually, he became a professor at various German universities. Weber taught his students that they

should employ verstehen (pronounced fair-shtay-en), the German word for “understanding” or

“insight,” in their intellectual work. He pointed out that we cannot analyze our social behavior by the

same type of objective criteria we use to measure weight or temperature. To fully comprehend

behavior, we must learn the subjective meanings people attach to their actions—how they themselves

view and explain their behavior.

Joyja_Lee/Shutterstock

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For example, suppose that a sociologist was studying the social ranking of individuals in a fraternity.

Weber would expect the researcher to employ verstehen to determine the significance of the

fraternity’s social hierarchy for its members. The researcher might examine the effects of athleticism or

grades or social skills or seniority on standing within the fraternity. He or she would seek to learn how

the fraternity members relate to other members of higher or lower status. While investigating these

questions, the researcher would take into account people’s emotions, thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes

(Coser 1977).

We also owe credit to Weber for a key conceptual tool: the ideal type. An ideal type is a construct or

model for evaluating specific cases. In his works, Weber identified various characteristics of bureaucracy

as an ideal type. In presenting this model of bureaucracy, Weber was not describing any particular

organization, nor was he using the term ideal in a way that suggested a positive evaluation. Instead, his

purpose was to provide a useful standard for measuring how bureaucratic an actual organization is

(Gerth and Mills 1958). Later in this book, we will use the concept of ideal type to study the family,

religion, authority, and economic systems, as well as to analyze bureaucracy.

Although their professional careers coincided, Émile Durkheim and Max Weber never met and probably

were unaware of each other’s ideas. Such was not true of the work of Karl Marx. Durkheim’s thinking

about the impact of the division of labor in industrial societies was related to Marx’s writings, while

Weber’s concern for a value-free, objective sociology was a direct response to Marx’s deeply held

convictions. Thus, it is not surprising that Karl Marx is viewed as a major figure in the development of

sociology, as well as several other social sciences (Figure 1-1).

FIGURE 1-1 CONTRIBUTORS TO SOCIOLOGY

The Art Gallery Collection/Alamy Stock Photo

Keystone Pictures USA/Alamy Stock Photo

Everett Historical/Shutterstock

Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-DIG-ppmsca-38818]

Émile Durkheim 1858–1917 Max Weber 1864–1920 Karl Marx 1818–1883

W. E. B. DuBois

1868–1963

Academic training Philosophy Law, economics, history, philosophy Philosophy, law Sociology

Key works

1893—The Division of Labor in Society

1897—Suicide: A Study in Sociology

1912—Elementary Forms of Religious Life

1904–1905—The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism

1921—Economy and Society

1848—The Communist Manifesto

1867—Das Kapital

1899—The Philadelphia Negro

1903—The Negro Church

1903—Souls of Black Folk

Karl Marx

Karl Marx (1818–1883) shared with Durkheim and Weber a dual interest in abstract philosophical issues

and the concrete reality of everyday life. Unlike them, however, Marx was so critical of existing

institutions that a conventional academic career was impossible. He spent most of his life in exile from

his native Germany.

Marx’s personal life was a difficult struggle. When a paper he had written was suppressed, he fled to

France. In Paris, he met Friedrich Engels (1820–1895), with whom he formed a lifelong friendship. The

two lived at a time when European and North American economic life was increasingly dominated by

the factory rather than the farm.

While in London in 1847, Marx and Engels attended secret meetings of an illegal coalition of labor

unions known as the Communist League. The following year they prepared a platform called The

Communist Manifesto, in which they argued that the masses of people with no resources other than

their labor (whom they referred to as the proletariat) should unite to fight for the overthrow of capitalist

societies. In the words of Marx and Engels:

The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. . . .

The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win.

working men of all countries, unite! (Tucker 1978:473, 500)

After completing The Communist Manifesto, Marx returned to Germany, only to be expelled. He then

moved to England, where he continued to write books and essays. Marx lived there in extreme poverty;

he pawned most of his possessions, and several of his children died of malnutrition and disease. Marx

clearly was an outsider in British society, a fact that may well have influenced his view of Western

cultures.

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Major Theoretical Perspectives

Sociologists view society in different ways. Some see the world basically as a stable and ongoing entity.

They are impressed with the endurance of the family, organized religion, and other social institutions.

Other sociologists see society as composed of many groups in conflict, competing for scarce resources.

To still other sociologists, the most fascinating aspects of the social world are the everyday, routine

interactions among individuals that we sometimes take for granted. These three views, the ones most

widely used by sociologists, are the functionalist, conflict, and interactionist perspectives. Together,

these approaches will provide an introductory look at the discipline.

Functionalist Perspective

Think of society as a living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its survival. This

view is the functionalist perspective, which emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society are

structured to maintain its stability. In examining any aspect of society, then, functionalists emphasize

the contribution it makes to overall social stability.

Talcott Parsons (1902–1979), a Harvard University sociologist, was a key figure in the development of

functionalist theory. Parsons was greatly influenced by the work of Émile Durkheim, Max Weber, and

other European sociologists. For more than four decades, he dominated sociology in the United States

with his advocacy of functionalism. Parsons saw any society as a vast network of connected parts, each

of which helps to maintain the system as a whole. His approach, carried forward by German sociologist

Niklas Luhmann (1927–1998), holds that if an aspect of social life does not contribute to a society’s

stability or survival—if it does not serve some identifiably useful function or promote value consensus

among members of society—it will not be passed on from one generation to the next (Joas and Knöbl

2009; Knudsen 2010).

Let’s examine an example of the functionalist perspective. Many Americans have difficulty

understanding the Hindu prohibition against slaughtering cows (specifically, zebu). Cattle browse

unhindered through Indian street markets, helping themselves to oranges and mangoes while people

bargain for the little food they can afford. What explains this devotion to the cow in the face of human

deprivation—a devotion that appears to be dysfunctional?

The simple explanation is that cow worship is highly functional in Indian society, according to

economists, agronomists, and social scientists who have studied the matter. Cows perform two essential

tasks: plowing the fields and producing milk. If eating beef were permitted, hungry families might be

tempted to slaughter their cows for immediate consumption, leaving themselves without a means of

cultivation. Cows also produce dung, which doubles as a fertilizer and a fuel for cooking. Finally, cow

meat sustains the neediest group in society, the Dalit, or untouchables, who sometimes resort to eating

beef in secrecy. If eating beef were socially acceptable, higher-status Indians would no doubt bid up its

price, placing it beyond the reach of the hungriest.

Manifest and Latent Functions

A college catalog typically states various functions of the institution. It may inform you, for example, that

the university intends to “offer each student a broad education in classical and contemporary thought,

in the humanities, in the sciences, and in the arts.” However, it would be quite a surprise to find a

catalog that declared, “This university was founded in 1895 to assist people in finding a marriage

partner.” No college catalog will declare this as the purpose of the university. Yet societal institutions

serve many functions, some of them quite subtle. The university, in fact, does facilitate mate selection.

Functionalists would see the family, as shown here in Panama City, Panama, as important to

contributing to the stability of the society.

John M Lund Photography Inc/Getty Images

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Robert Merton (1968) made an important distinction between manifest and latent functions. Manifest

functions of institutions are open, stated, and conscious functions. They involve the intended,

recognized consequences of an aspect of society, such as the university’s role in certifying academic

competence and excellence. In contrast, latent functions are unconscious or unintended functions that

may reflect hidden purposes of an institution. One latent function of universities is to hold down

unemployment. Another is to serve as a meeting ground for people seeking marital partners.

Dysfunctions

Functionalists acknowledge that not all parts of a society contribute to its stability all the time. A

dysfunction refers to an element or process of a society that may actually disrupt the social system or

reduce its stability.

We view many dysfunctional behavior patterns, such as homicide, as undesirable. Yet we should not

automatically interpret them in this way. The evaluation of a dysfunction depends on one’s own values,

or as the saying goes, on “where you sit.” For example, the official view in prisons in the United States is

that inmate gangs should be eradicated because they are dysfunctional to smooth operations. Yet some

guards have come to view prison gangs as a functional part of their jobs. The danger posed by gangs

creates a “threat to security,” requiring increased surveillance and more overtime work for guards, as

well as requests for special staffing to address gang problems (Scott 2001).

Interactionists studied the new patterns of everyday behavior during the coronavirus pandemic as

people wore gloves and facial coverings and maintained social distance between themselves and others.

MikeDotta/Shutterstock

Conflict Perspective

Where functionalists see stability and consensus, conflict sociologists see a social world in continual

struggle. The conflict perspective assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of tension

between groups over power or the allocation of resources, including housing, money, access to services,

and political representation. The tension between competing groups need not be violent; it can take the

form of labor negotiations, party politics, competition between religious groups for new members, or

disputes over the federal budget.

Throughout most of the 1900s, the functionalist perspective had the upper hand in sociology in the

United States. However, the conflict approach has become increasingly persuasive since the late 1960s.

The widespread social unrest resulting from battles over civil rights, bitter divisions over the war in

Vietnam, the rise of the feminist and LGBTQ liberation movements, the Watergate political scandal,

urban riots, confrontations at abortion clinics, and shrinking economic prospects for the middle class

have offered support for the conflict approach—the view that our social world is characterized by

continual struggle between competing groups. Currently, the discipline of sociology accepts conflict

theory as one valid way to gain insight into a society.

The Marxist View

As we saw earlier, Karl Marx viewed struggle between social classes as inevitable, given the exploitation

of workers that he perceived under capitalism. Expanding on Marx’s work, sociologists and other social

scientists have come to see conflict not merely as a class phenomenon but as a part of everyday life in

all societies. In studying any culture, organization, or social group, sociologists want to know who

benefits, who suffers, and who dominates at the expense of others. They are concerned with the

conflicts between women and men, parents and children, cities and suburbs, White and Black people, to

name only a few. Conflict theorists are interested in how society’s institutions—including the family,

government, religion, education, and the media—may help to maintain the privileges of some groups

and keep others in a subservient position. Their emphasis on social change and the redistribution of

resources makes conflict theorists more radical and activist than functionalists (Dahrendorf 1959).

Building upon the work of the conflict perspective, sociologists today have drawn greater attention to

social inequality as it dramatically impacts people of color. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva grew up in Puerto Rico,

where his mother was a sociologist who authored a book focusing on domestic abuse. Proud of his

family and ethnic background, Bonilla-Silva’s scholarship asks us to rethink racism as it occurs subtly by

outwardly tolerant people as well as violently in everyday life. Significant change is required to

overcome this centuries old, long-standing pattern of inequality (Bonilla-Silva 2019; Silva-Bonilla 1985).

Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, former president of the American Sociological Association, has drawn upon

conflict theory to focus on issues of long-term social and racial inequality.

Duke University

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The Feminist Perspective

Sociologists began embracing the feminist perspective only in the 1970s, although it has a long tradition

in many other disciplines. The feminist perspective sees inequity in gender as central to all behavior and

organization. Because it focuses clearly on one aspect of inequality, it is often allied with the conflict

perspective. Proponents of the feminist view tend to focus on the macro level, just as conflict theorists

do. Drawing on the work of Marx and Engels, contemporary feminist theorists often view women’s

subordination as inherent in capitalist societies. Some radical feminist theorists, however, view the

oppression of women as inevitable in all male-dominated societies, whether capitalist, socialist, or

communist (Ferguson 2017).

Ida Wells-Barnett explored what it meant to be a Black woman in the United States. Her work

established her as one of the earliest feminist theorists.

Smithsonian Libraries/Science Source

An early example of this perspective (long before the label came into use by sociologists) can be seen in

the life and writings of Ida Wells-Barnett (1862–1931). Following her groundbreaking publications in the

1890s on the practice of lynching Black Americans, she became an advocate in the women’s rights

campaign, especially the struggle to win the vote for women. Like feminist theorists who succeeded her,

Wells-Barnett used her analysis of society as a means of resisting oppression. In her case, she

researched what it meant to be Black, a woman in the United States, and a Black woman in the United

States (Giddings 2008; Wells-Barnett 1970).

A more recent contribution that continues to spark discussion is the notion of the intersectionalities, or

the interlocking matrix of domination. In all societies, privilege or lack of privilege is determined by

multiple social factors, such as gender, age, race, sexual orientation, and religion. Patricia Hill Collins

(2000), among other feminist theorists, drew attention to these interlocking factors, demonstrating that

it is not just wealth that influences how we navigate our daily lives in any society. We will discuss

intersectionalities in greater detail later in this book.

Queer Theory

Traditionally, sociologists and other researchers have assumed that men and women are heterosexual.

They either ignored other sexual identifications or treated them as abnormal. Yet as French social

theorist Michel Foucault (1978) has pointed out, what is regarded as normal or even acceptable human

sexuality varies dramatically from one culture to another, as well as from one time period to another.

Today, in queer theory, sociologists have moved beyond narrow assumptions to study sexuality in all its

forms.

Historically, the word queer was used in a derogatory manner, to stigmatize a person or behavior.

Beginning in the early 1970s, however, gay and lesbian activists began to use the word as a term of

empowerment. They dismissed the notion of heterosexuality as the only normal form of sexuality, along

with the belief that people must be either heterosexual or homosexual. Instead, they recognized

multiple sexual identities, including bisexuality. Queer theory is the study of society from the

perspective of a broad spectrum of sexual identities, including heterosexuality, homosexuality, and

bisexuality.

Queer theorist Eve Sedgwick (1990) argues that any analysis of society is incomplete if it does not

include the spectrum of sexual identities that people embrace. Consider, for example, the 2020

Presidential election. Among all LGBTQ voters, 81 percent voted for former Vice-President Joe Biden and

14 percent for the incumbent, President Donald Trump. Among first-time LGBTQ voters, 86 percent

voted for Biden, 10 percent for Trump. The major issues influencing these voters were the COVID-19

response, followed by health care, racial justice, and then LGBTQ equality. Among LGBTQ adults, 78

percent rated Biden “excellent or good” in addressing LGBTQ issues during the campaign, whereas 80

percent rated Trump “not so good or poor” (GLAAD 2020).

use your sociological imagination

You are a sociologist who takes the conflict perspective. How would you interpret the practice of

prostitution? How would your view of prostitution differ if you took the functionalist perspective? The

feminist perspective? The perspective of queer theory?

Interactionist Perspective

Workers interacting on the job, encounters in public places like bus stops and parks, behavior in small

groups—all these aspects of microsociology catch the attention of interactionists. Whereas functionalist

and conflict theorists both analyze large-scale, society-wide patterns of behavior, theorists who take the

interactionist perspective generalize about everyday forms of social interaction in order to explain

society as a whole.

Today, given concern over traffic congestion and commuting costs, interactionists have begun to study a

form of commuter behavior called “slugging.” To avoid driving to work, commuters gather at certain

preappointed places to seek rides from complete strangers. When a driver pulls into the parking area or

vacant lot and announces his destination, the first slug in line who is headed for that destination jumps

in. Rules of etiquette have emerged to smooth the social interaction between driver and passenger:

neither the driver nor the passenger may eat or smoke; the slug may not adjust the windows or radio or

talk on a cell phone. The presence of the slugs, who get a free ride, may allow the driver to use special

lanes reserved for high-occupancy vehicles (Slug-Lines.com 2020).

Interactionism (also referred to as symbolic interactionism) is a sociological framework in which human

beings are viewed as living in a world of meaningful objects. Those “objects” may include material

things, actions, other people, relationships, and even symbols. Interactionists see symbols as an

especially important part of human communication (thus the term symbolic interactionism). Symbols

have a shared social meaning that is understood by all members of a society. In the United States, for

example, a salute symbolizes respect, while a clenched fist signifies defiance. Another culture might use

different gestures to convey a feeling of respect or defiance. These types of symbolic interaction are

classified as forms of nonverbal communication, which can include many other gestures, facial

expressions, and postures (Hall et al. 2019).

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Taking Sociology with You

You’ve seen how sociologists employ the major sociological perspectives in their research. How does

sociology relate to you, your own studies, and your own career? In this section you’ll learn about applied

and clinical sociology, two growing fields that allow sociology majors and those with advanced degrees

in sociology to apply what they have learned to real-world settings. You’ll also see how to develop your

sociological imagination, one of the keys to thinking like a sociologist. See the appendix at the end of this

chapter for more information on careers in sociology.

Applied and Clinical Sociology

Many early sociologists—notably, Jane Addams, W. E. B. DuBois, and George Herbert Mead—were

strong advocates for social reform. They wanted their theories and findings to be relevant to

policymakers and to people’s lives in general. For instance, Mead was the treasurer of Hull House,

where he applied his theory to improving the lives of those who were powerless (especially immigrants).

He also served on committees dealing with Chicago’s labor problems and public education. DuBois led

the Atlanta Sociological Laboratory from 1895 to 1924, supporting scholars in their applied research on

business, criminal justice, health care, and philanthropy (Earl Wright II 2020).

Today, applied sociology is the use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of yielding

practical applications for human behavior and organizations. By extension, Michael Burawoy (2005), in

his presidential address to the American Sociological Association, endorsed what he called public

sociology, encouraging scholars to engage a broader audience in bringing about positive outcomes. In

effect, the applied sociologist reaches out to others and joins them in their efforts to better society.

Often, the goal of applied or public sociology is to assist in resolving a social problem. For example, in

the past 50 years, eight presidents of the United States have established commissions to delve into

major societal concerns facing our nation. Sociologists are often asked to apply their expertise to

studying such issues as violence, pornography, crime, immigration, and population. In Europe, both

academic and government research departments are offering increasing financial support for applied

studies.

The study of low-paid workers in Napa Valley that we focused on at the beginning of the chapter led the

researchers to propose that employees should learn about the benefits of guaranteeing stable and

adequate jobs as a means to increase efficiency and productivity. Furthermore, the study reinforced the

need for society to consider the minimum wage being offered to employees and the availability of

health care and child care (Smith and Halpin 2014).

Students look over vegetables at Nutritious U campus food pantry, which serves college campuses in the

Minneapolis area. A program allows students who don’t use all their dining hall swipes to donate to the

pantry.

David Joles/Minneapolis Star Tribune via ZUMA Wire/Alamy Stock Photo

Another example of applied sociology is the growing interest in hunger on college campuses among

students. According to a 2020 survey, 38 percent of students at two-year colleges and 29 percent of

students at four-year colleges reported experiencing food insecurity during the previous 30 days.

College students confront food insecurity because of the various demands on their funds: tuition,

housing, and course materials, in addition to food and lodging. As of 2023, over 550 food pantries or

food banks were in operation to serve students on one or more campuses. These pantries allow

students to receive needed help with no questions asked. They are often funded by donations from

other students who don’t use all their dining hall swipes.

The pandemic created many challenges to established services, and college food pantries were no

exception. A 2020 study based on in-depth interviews about students’ responses to the temporary

closure of food pantries noted the use of many coping mechanisms, such as seeking help from family

and friends and cooking at available locations. Notably, the research underscored the growing

awareness in higher education that academic success depends on financial, family, and health issues,

including food insecurity (Jangiou 2022).

Because many college and university campuses were shut down during the pandemic, vital services such

as food assistance were also reduced or closed to students in need. In addition, college-aged individuals

between 18 and 24 were also the most likely to experience unemployment during the pandemic, further

increasing food insecurity on college campuses (McCoy et al. 2022; Swipe Out Hunger 2023).

Growing interest in applied sociology has led to such specializations as medical sociology and

environmental sociology. The former includes research on how health care professionals and patients

deal with disease. To give one example, medical sociologists have studied the social impact of the AIDS

crisis and the coronavirus pandemic on families, friends, and communities. Environmental sociologists

examine the relationship between human societies and the physical environment. One focus of their

work is the issue of “environmental justice,” raised when researchers and community activists found

that hazardous waste dumps are especially likely to be situated in poor and minority neighborhoods

(Martin 1996).

The growing popularity of applied sociology has led to the rise of the specialty of clinical sociology. Louis

Wirth (1931) wrote about clinical sociology almost 90 years ago, but the term itself has become popular

only in recent years. While applied sociology may simply evaluate social issues, clinical sociology is

dedicated to facilitating change by altering social relationships (as in family therapy) or restructuring

social institutions (as in the reorganization of a medical center).

Page 19

Applied sociologists generally leave it to policymakers to act on their evaluations. In contrast, clinical

sociologists take direct responsibility for implementation and view those with whom they work as their

clients. This specialty has become increasingly attractive to graduate students in sociology because it

offers an opportunity to apply intellectual learning in a practical way. A shrinking job market in the

academic world has made such alternative career routes appealing.

Applied and clinical sociology can be contrasted with basic sociology (also called pure sociology), which

seeks a more profound knowledge of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena. This type of

research is not necessarily meant to generate specific applications, although such ideas may result once

findings are analyzed. When Durkheim studied suicide rates, he was not primarily interested in

discovering a way to eliminate suicide. In this sense, his research was an example of basic rather than

applied sociology.

Developing a Sociological Imagination

In this book, we will be illustrating the sociological imagination in several different ways—by showing

theory in practice and in current research; by noting the ways in which electronic devices and apps are

changing our social behavior; by thinking globally; by exploring the significance of social inequality; by

speaking across race, gender, and religious boundaries; and by highlighting social policy throughout the

world.

Theory in Practice

We will illustrate how the major sociological perspectives can be helpful in understanding today’s issues,

from capital punishment to abortion. Sociologists do not necessarily declare, “Here I am using

functionalism,” but their research and approaches do tend to draw on one or more theoretical

frameworks, as will become clear in the pages to follow.

Research Today

Sociologists actively investigate a variety of issues and social behavior. We have already seen that

research can shed light on the social factors that affect suicide rates. Sociological research often plays a

direct role in improving people’s lives, as in the case of increasing the participation of African Americans

in diabetes testing. Throughout the rest of the book, the research performed by sociologists and other

social scientists will shed light on group behavior of all types.

Our Wired World

“What is the news today?” For many people, “the news” means the latest comments, pictures, and

videos posted online by friends and acquaintances. For some, such up-to-the-minute connectivity has

become addictive. Sociologists see the “third place” as reflecting both face-to-face social interaction and

as a place where people gather together, each with his or her face buried in a smartphone or laptop.

Thinking Globally

Whatever their theoretical perspective or research techniques, sociologists recognize that social

behavior must be viewed in a global context. Globalization is the worldwide integration of government

policies, cultures, social movements, and financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas.

Although public discussion of globalization is relatively recent, intellectuals have been pondering both its

negative and positive social consequences for a long time. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels warned in The

Communist Manifesto (written in 1848) of a world market that would lead to production in distant

lands, sweeping away existing working relationships.

The interconnectedness across the world makes globalization increasingly important to many aspects of

daily life.

Source: ©Milt Priggee, Puget Sound Business Journal, June 27, 2005.

Globalization is a major topic of news stories, memes, and critical analysis. During the pandemic, the

disruption in the global supply chain led to renewed attention to nations’ dependence on one another,

as well as renewed calls in many nations to try to end such dependence.

Another aspect of the world landscape is the growing role of influencers, as described in Box 1-3.

SOCIOLOGY IN THE GLOBAL COMMUNITY

1-3 Influencers Worldwide

Generations ago people such as Winston Churchill and Mahatma Gandhi came to mind as individuals

whose worldviews reached millions. Today, it is the likes of Ryan, a U.S. elementary school student who

demonstrates and evaluates toys, football (soccer) star Cristiano Ronaldo, and English entrepreneur

Zoella (Zoe Elizabeth Sugg).

An influencer is a social media user who has established credibility in a specific industry, has access to a

huge audience, and can persuade others to act based on his or her recommendations. Unlike most

world leaders, influencers churn out content 24/7 on such platforms as YouTube, TikTok, or Instagram.

Influencers achieve their world mark by different means. Some are brilliant thinkers who offer insights

into a broad range of issues or use their celebrity status to bring attention to selected social causes.

Others are conventionally attractive, good at video games, excel at sports, or set fashion trends.

Typically, they begin by posting content and trying to create a group following; for some online users,

they become significant influencers in their own niche, whether cooking Greek dishes or attempting to

scale climbing walls. As their numbers of followers grow, they become entrepreneurs, hiring staff and

managing budgets. This does not go unnoticed by corporations: soon consumer brands sponsor them to

highlight products. In some respects, these social media stars achieve the kind of celebrity that movie

stars had in the past.

Today, global influencers reach across societies and are increasingly being monetized by commercial

enterprises, at the same time they are becoming more and more entrenched in our daily interactions.

Sociologists acknowledge that influencers, like all leaders, can produce negative consequences, such as

those who espouse prejudicial views or incite violence against some group. Another quite different

concern is the creation of nonhuman, digitally created influencers. Sometimes it is good fun, as viewers

typically are aware they are interacting with a digital creation, but some nonhuman influencers are

made to mislead and misinform the online community. After two years of concealing “her” nonhuman

origins, Lil Miquela, a Brazilian American, became such an online celebrity that Prada and Nike

sponsored her.

Influencers are now integral to global social media. Pictured here is YouTube singer and actress Lele

Pons of Venezuela.

Alberto E. Tamargo/Sipa USA/Alamy Stock Photo

LET’S DISCUSS

Who do you consider to be important influencers? In what fields do they exercise influence?

What are the potential consequences if an influencer sponsors a company’s products? Can this happen

without followers’ being aware of the sponsorship?

Sources: Frederick 2023; Roose 2019.

The Significance of Social Inequality

Who holds power? Who doesn’t? Who has prestige? Who lacks it? Perhaps the major theme of analysis

in sociology today is social inequality, a condition in which members of society have differing amounts of

wealth, prestige, or power. The impact of Hurricane Katrina on residents of the Gulf Coast drew

attention to social inequality in the United States. Predictably, the people who were hit hardest by the

massive storm were the poor, who had the greatest difficulty evacuating before the storm and have had

the most difficulty recovering from it.

Page 20

Some sociologists, in seeking to understand the effects of inequality, have made the case for social

justice. W. E. B. DuBois ([1940] 1968:418) noted that the greatest power in the land is not “thought or

ethics, but wealth.” As we have seen, the contributions of Karl Marx, Jane Addams, and Ida Wells-

Barnett also stressed this belief in the overarching significance of social inequality, and by extension,

social justice. In this book, social inequality will be the central focus of several chapters, and sociologists’

work on inequality will be highlighted throughout.

Speaking across Race, Gender, and Religious Boundaries

Sociologists include both men and women, who come from a variety of ethnic, national, and religious

origins. In their work, sociologists seek to draw conclusions that speak to all people—not just the

affluent or powerful. Doing so is not always easy. Insights into how a corporation can increase its profits

tend to attract more attention and financial support than do, say, the merits of a needle exchange

program for low-income inner-city residents. Yet today more than ever, sociology seeks to better

understand the experiences of all people.

Sociologists have noted, for example, that the huge tsunami that hit South Asia in 2004 affected men

and women differently. When the waves hit, mothers and grandmothers were at home with the

children; men were outside working, where they were more likely to become aware of the impending

disaster. Moreover, most of the men knew how to swim, a survival skill that women in these traditional

societies usually do not learn. As a result, many more men than women survived the catastrophe—

about 10 men for every 1 woman. In one Indonesian village typical of the disaster area, 97 of 1,300

people survived; only 4 were women. The impact of this gender imbalance will be felt for some time,

given women’s primary role as caregivers for children and older adults (BBC News 2005).

Social Policy throughout the World

One important way we can use a sociological imagination is to enhance our understanding of current

social issues throughout the world. Beginning with Chapter 2, each chapter will conclude with a

discussion of a contemporary social policy issue. In some cases, we will examine a specific issue facing

national governments, such as funding of child care, global immigration, and religion in the schools.

These Social Policy sections will demonstrate how fundamental sociological concepts can enhance our

critical thinking skills and help us to better understand current public policy debates taking place around

the world.

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APPENDIX Careers in Sociology

Over the past decade, over 26,000 college students have graduated each year with a bachelor’s degree

in sociology. In this appendix, we’ll consider some of the options these students have after completing

their education (National Center for Education Statistics 2021).

How do students first learn about the sociological perspective on society? Some may take a sociology

course in high school. Others may study sociology at community college, where 40 percent of all college

students in the United States are enrolled. Indeed, many future sociology majors first develop their

sociological imaginations at a community college.

An undergraduate degree in sociology doesn’t just serve as excellent preparation for future graduate

work in sociology. It also provides a strong liberal arts background for entry-level positions in business,

social services, foundations, community organizations, not-for-profit groups, law enforcement, and

many government jobs. A number of fields—among them marketing, public relations, and

broadcasting—now require investigative skills and an understanding of the diverse groups found in

today’s multiethnic and multinational environment. Moreover, a sociology degree requires

accomplishment in oral and written communication, interpersonal skills, problem solving, the ability to

work in a team, organizational skills, data analysis, and critical thinking—all job-related skills that may

give sociology graduates an advantage over those who pursue more technical degrees (Piccardo 2021).

Consequently, while few occupations specifically require an undergraduate degree in sociology, such

academic training can be an important asset in entering a wide range of occupations. To emphasize this

point, a number of chapters in this book highlight a real-life professional who describes how the study of

sociology has helped in his or her career. For example, a Taking Sociology to Work box explains how a

college graduate uses her training in sociology as a social media manager for nonprofit organizations.

And another Taking Sociology to Work box shows how a recent graduate uses the skill set he acquired as

a sociology major in his role as a government analyst.

Figure 1-3 summarizes the sources of employment for those with BA or BS degrees in sociology. It shows

that fields including nonprofit organizations, education, business, and government offer major career

opportunities for sociology graduates. Undergraduates who know where their career interests lie are

well advised to enroll in sociology courses and specialties best suited to those interests. For example,

students hoping to become health planners would take a class in medical sociology; students seeking

employment as social science research assistants would focus on courses in statistics and methods.

Internships, such as placements at city planning agencies and survey research organizations, afford

another way for sociology students to prepare for careers. Studies show that students who choose an

internship placement have less trouble finding jobs, obtain better jobs, and enjoy greater job

satisfaction than students without internship placements. Finally, students should expect to change

fields during their first five years of employment after graduation—for example, from sales and

marketing to management (American Sociological Association 2013; Salem and Grabarek 1986).

FIGURE 1-3 OCCUPATIONS OF GRADUATING SOCIOLOGY MAJORS

Note: Based on a national survey of current occupations in 2013 of 759 graduates with a sociology major

in the Class of 2012.

Source: Spalter-Roth et al. 2013. Photo: Flashon Studio/Shutterstock

Many college students view social work as the field most closely associated with sociology. Traditionally,

social workers received their undergraduate training in sociology and allied fields such as psychology

and counseling. After some practical experience, social workers would generally seek a master’s degree

in social work (MSW) to be considered for supervisory or administrative positions. Today, however,

some students choose (where it is available) to pursue a bachelor’s degree in social work (BSW). This

degree prepares graduates for direct service positions, such as caseworker or group worker.

One year after graduation, one out of four sociology majors was employed in the social services as a

counselor, child advocate, forensic interviewer, program director, or caseworker.

Aleksei Ivanov/123RF

Many students continue their sociological training beyond the bachelor’s degree. More than 180

universities in the United States have graduate programs in sociology that offer PhD and/or master’s

degrees. These programs differ greatly in their areas of specialization, course requirements, costs, and

the research and teaching opportunities available to graduate students. About 62 percent of graduates

are women (American Sociological Association 2021b).

Page 22

Higher education is an important source of employment for sociologists with graduate degrees. About

85 percent of recent PhD recipients in sociology have sought employment in colleges and universities.

These sociologists teach not only majors who are committed to the discipline but also students hoping

to become doctors, nurses, lawyers, police officers, and so forth (National Science Foundation 2019).

Sociologists who teach in colleges and universities may use their knowledge and training to influence

public policy. For example, many researchers and parents, for that matter, expressed concern about

children being at home rather than in school during the pandemic. However, there is a long history of

sociologists and others questioning out-of-school suspensions—sending children home for disciplinary

purposes.

Scholars and others have advocated for school punishment reform to local and state boards of

education. Clear school behavior guidelines are necessary, but there is little evidence that suspending

students promotes compliance. Rather, suspended students have been shown to be at heightened risk

of several dire future outcomes, such as academic failure, dropping out of school, arrest, and

incarceration. Furthermore, students with disabilities, students who identify as LGBTQ, and students of

color are disproportionately punished in schools. Households are also adversely affected as parents’

wages may be reduced. Policy reforms are needed to reduce unnecessary suspensions and offer more

supportive, inclusive learning environments (Bell 2021; Kupchik 2022).

For sociology graduates who are interested in academic careers, the road to a PhD (or doctorate) can be

long and difficult. This degree symbolizes competence in original research; each candidate must prepare

a book-length study known as a dissertation. Typically, a doctoral student in sociology will engage in four

to seven years of intensive work, including the time required to complete the dissertation. Yet even this

effort is no guarantee of a job as a sociology professor.

The demand for college instructors is projected to grow 11 percent through 2031, faster than the

average for all occupations. Anyone who launches an academic career must be prepared for

considerable uncertainty and competition in the college job market (Bureau of Labor Statistics 2022a).

Of course, not all people who work as sociologists teach or hold doctoral degrees. Take government, for

example. The Census Bureau relies on people with sociological training to interpret data for other

government agencies and the general public. Virtually every agency depends on survey research—a field

in which sociology students can specialize—in order to assess everything from community needs to the

morale of the agency’s workers. In addition, people with sociological training can put their academic

knowledge to effective use in probation and parole, health sciences, community development, and

recreational services. Some people working in government or private industry have a master’s degree

(MA or MS) in sociology; others have a bachelor’s degree (BA or BS).

Page 23

Currently, about 15 percent of the members of the American Sociological Association use their

sociological skills outside the academic world, whether in social service agencies or in marketing

positions for business firms. Increasing numbers of sociologists with graduate degrees are employed by

businesses, industry, hospitals, and nonprofit organizations. Studies show that many sociology graduates

are making career changes from social service areas to business and commerce. For an undergraduate

major, sociology is excellent preparation for employment in many parts of the business world (Spalter-

Roth et al. 2013).

Whether you take a few courses in sociology or complete a degree, you will benefit from the critical

thinking skills developed in this discipline. Sociologists emphasize the value of being able to analyze,

interpret, and function within a variety of working situations—an asset in virtually any career. Moreover,

given rapid technological change and the expanding global economy, all of us will need to adapt to

substantial social change, even in our own careers. Sociology provides a rich conceptual framework that

can serve as a foundation for flexible career development and assist you in taking advantage of new

employment opportunities.

MASTERING THIS CHAPTER

Summary

Sociology is the scientific study of social behavior and human groups. This chapter examines the nature

of sociological theory, the founders of the discipline, theoretical perspectives in contemporary sociology,

practical applications for sociological theory and research, and ways to exercise the sociological

imagination.

The sociological imagination is an awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider

society. It is based on the ability to view our own society as an outsider might, rather than from the

perspective of our limited experiences and cultural biases.

In contrast to other social sciences, sociology emphasizes the influence that groups can have on people’s

behavior and attitudes and the ways in which people shape society.

Knowledge that relies on common sense is not always reliable. Sociologists must test and analyze each

piece of information they use.

Sociologists employ theories to examine relationships between observations or data that may seem

completely unrelated.

Nineteenth-century thinkers who contributed sociological insights included Auguste Comte, a French

philosopher; Harriet Martineau, an English sociologist; and Herbert Spencer, an English scholar.

Other important figures in the development of sociology were Émile Durkheim, who pioneered work on

suicide; Max Weber, who taught the need for insight in intellectual work; Karl Marx, who emphasized

the importance of the economy and social conflict; and W. E. B. DuBois, who advocated the usefulness

of both basic and applied research in combating prejudice and fostering racial tolerance and justice.

In the 20th century, the discipline of sociology was indebted to the U.S. sociologists Charles Horton

Cooley and Robert Merton, as well as to the French sociologist

Pierre Bourdieu.

Macrosociology concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations; microsociology stresses

the study of small groups. Mesosociology is an intermediate level of analysis that focuses on formal

organizations and social movements. Global sociology compares nations or entire

societies.

The functionalist perspective emphasizes the way in which the parts of a society are structured to

maintain its stability.

The conflict perspective assumes that social behavior is best understood in terms of conflict or tension

between competing groups.

The feminist perspective, which is often allied with the conflict perspective, sees inequity in gender as

central to all behavior and organization.

Queer theory stresses that to fully understand society, scholars must study it from the perspective of a

range of sexual identities, rather than exclusively from a “normal” heterosexual point of view.

The interactionist perspective is concerned primarily with fundamental or everyday forms of interaction,

including symbols and other types of nonverbal communication.

Sociologists make use of all perspectives, since each offers unique insights into the same issue.

Applied and clinical sociology apply the discipline of sociology to the solution of practical problems in

human behavior and organizations. In contrast, basic sociology is sociological inquiry that seeks only a

deeper knowledge of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena.

This textbook makes use of the sociological imagination by showing theory in practice and in current

research; by noting the ways in which electronic devices and apps are changing our social behavior; by

thinking globally; by focusing on the significance of social inequality; by speaking across race, gender,

and religious boundaries; and by highlighting social policy around the world.

Key Terms

Anomie Durkheim’s term for the loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual

behavior has become ineffective. (page 8)

Applied sociology The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of yielding practical

applications for human behavior and organizations. (18)

Basic sociology Sociological inquiry conducted with the objective of gaining a more profound knowledge

of the fundamental aspects of social phenomena. Also known as pure sociology. (19)

Clinical sociology The use of the discipline of sociology with the specific intent of altering social

relationships or restructuring social institutions. (18)Page 24

Conflict perspective A sociological approach that assumes that social behavior is best understood in

terms of tension between groups over power or the allocation of resources, including housing, money,

access to services, and political representation.

(13)

Cultural capital Noneconomic goods, such as family background and education, which are reflected in a

knowledge of language and the arts. (11)

Double consciousness The division of an individual’s identity into two or more social realities. (10)

Dramaturgical approach A view of social interaction, popularized by Erving Goffman, in which people are

seen as theatrical performers. (15)

Dysfunction An element or process of a society that may disrupt the social system or reduce its stability.

(13)

Feminist perspective A sociological approach that views inequity in gender as central to all behavior and

organization. (14)

Functionalist perspective A sociological approach that emphasizes the way in which the parts of a

society are structured to maintain its stability. (12)

Global sociology A level of sociological analysis that makes comparisons between entire nations, using

entire societies as units of analysis. (11)

Globalization The worldwide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and

financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas. (19)

Ideal type A construct or model for evaluating specific cases. (9)

Influencer A social media user who has established credibility in a specific industry, such as fashion or

electronics or toys. (20)

Interactionist perspective A sociological approach that generalizes about everyday forms of social

interaction in order to explain society as a whole. (14)

Latent function An unconscious or unintended function that may reflect hidden purposes. (13)

Macrosociology Sociological investigation that concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire

civilizations. (11)

Manifest function An open, stated, and conscious function. (13)

Mesosociology An intermediate level of sociological analysis that focuses on formal organizations and

social movements. (11)

Microsociology Sociological investigation that stresses the study of small groups, often through

experimental means. (11)

Natural science The study of the physical features of nature and the ways in which they interact and

change. (3)

Nonverbal communication The sending of messages through the use of gestures, facial expressions, and

postures. (15)

Queer theory The study of society from the perspective of a broad spectrum of sexual identities,

including heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality. (14)

Science The body of knowledge obtained by methods based on systematic observation. (3)

Social capital The collective benefit of social networks, which are built on reciprocal trust. (11)

Social inequality A condition in which members of society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige, or

power. (19)

Social science The study of the social features of humans and the ways in which they interact and

change. (3)

Sociological imagination An awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society,

both today and in the past. (3)

Sociology The scientific study of social behavior and human groups. (3)

Theory In sociology, a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior. (6)

Third place A social setting in addition to the “first place” of home and the “second place” of work

where people routinely gather. (15)

Verstehen The German word for “understanding” or “insight”; used by Max Weber to stress the need

for sociologists to take into account the subjective meanings people attach to their actions. (8)

TAKING SOCIOLOGY with you

Research! Time your daily activities. How much time do you spend communicating with others via

electronic media, compared to speaking with them directly? How many different people do you

converse with in person and how many via digital devices?

In what ways have you and your family been affected by climate change? Have you felt any social

pressure to do something about it personally?

Writing Sociology. Consider some group or organization that you participate in. Using Robert Merton’s

concepts, list its manifest and latent functions.

How do sociology’s varied theoretical approaches tend to emphasize the study of groups that are

economically poor or otherwise marginalized?

What specific issues could be best studied using a meso level of analysis? Which are best approached

through global sociology?

Self-Quiz

Read each question carefully and then select the best answer.

Sociology is

very narrow in scope.

concerned with what one individual does or does not do.

the systematic study of social behavior and human groups.

the study of interactions between two individuals at a time.

Answer

Which of the following thinkers introduced the concept of the sociological imagination?

Émile Durkheim

Max Weber

Karl Marx

C. Wright Mills

Answer

Page 25

Émile Durkheim’s research on suicide suggested that

people with religious affiliations had a higher suicide rate than those who were unaffiliated.

suicide rates seemed to be higher in times of peace than in times of war and revolution.

civilians were more likely to take their lives than soldiers.

suicide is a solitary act, unrelated to group life.

Answer

Max Weber taught his students that they should employ which of the following in their intellectual

work?

anomie

verstehen

the sociological imagination

microsociology

Answer

Robert Merton’s contributions to sociology include

successfully combining theory and research.

producing a theory that is one of the most frequently cited explanations of deviant behavior.

an attempt to bring macro-level and micro-level analyses together.

all of the above.

Answer

Which sociologist made a major contribution to society through his in-depth studies of urban life,

including both Blacks and Whites?

W. E. B. DuBois

Robert Merton

Auguste Comte

Charles Horton Cooley

Answer

In the late 19th century, before the term “feminist view” was even coined, the ideas behind this major

theoretical approach appeared in the writings of

Karl Marx.

Ida Wells-Barnett.

Charles Horton Cooley.

Pierre Bourdieu.

Answer

Thinking of society as a living organism in which each part of the organism contributes to its survival is a

reflection of which theoretical perspective?

the functionalist perspective

the conflict perspective

the feminist perspective

the interactionist perspective

Answer

Karl Marx’s view of the struggle between social classes inspired the contemporary

functionalist perspective.

conflict perspective.

interactionist perspective.

dramaturgical approach.

Answer

Erving Goffman’s dramaturgical approach, which postulates that people present certain aspects of their

personalities while obscuring other aspects, is a derivative of which major theoretical perspective?

the functionalist perspective

the conflict perspective

the feminist perspective

the interactionist perspective

Answer

Within sociology, a(n)  blank is a set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior.

Answer

In  blank blank’s hierarchy of the sciences, sociology was the “queen,” and its practitioners were

“scientist-priests.”

Answer

In Society in America, originally published in 1837, English scholar  blank blank examined religion,

politics, child rearing, and immigration in the young nation.

Answer

 blank blank adapted Charles Darwin’s evolutionary view of the “survival of the fittest” by arguing that it

is “natural” that some people are rich while others are poor.

Answer

Sociologist Max Weber coined the term  blank blank in referring to a construct or model that serves as a

measuring rod against which actual cases can be evaluated.

Answer

In The Communist Manifesto,  blank blank and  blank blank argued that the masses of people who have

no resources other than their labor (the proletariat) should unite to fight for the overthrow of capitalist

societies.

Answer

 blank blank, an early woman sociologist, cofounded the famous Chicago settlement house called Hull

House and also tried to establish a juvenile court system.

Answer

The university’s role in certifying academic competence and excellence is an example of a(n)  blank

function.

Answer

The  blank blank draws on the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in that it often views women’s

subordination as inherent in capitalist societies.

Answer

Looking at society from the broad spectrum of sexual identity, including heterosexuality, homosexuality,

and bisexuality, is called  blank theory.

Answer

Answers

1 (c); 2 (d); 3 (b); 4 (b); 5 (d); 6 (a); 7 (b); 8 (a); 9 (b); 10 (d) 11 theory; 12 Auguste Comte; 13 Harriet

Martineau; 14 Herbert Spencer; 15 ideal type; 16 Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels; 17 Jane Addams; 18

manifest; 19 feminist perspective; 20 queer

General Discussion Board (DB) Expectations

 

1. Students are required to have three (3) posts on three (3) separate days for each weekly DB. 

1.
Post 1 is your initial response to the prompt based on what you learned from the assigned material. Initial posts must contain appropriate APA formatted in-text citations Each post must be a minimum of 200 words and the word count (WC) should be included before the reference(s) at the end of your posts.

2. Follow basic writing rules for spelling, grammar, sentence structure, capitalization, punctuation, tense agreement, etc. Please proof read and edit.

3. Use your classmate’s name in your response posts.

4. Late posts are welcome but will incur a penalty.

Discussion Boards (DB) are one of the most important learning activities in our class. They are the classroom discussions of the online environment. Please put time, thought, and effort into your posts. Also, remember to respect the views of others even if you disagree. There is a professional way to express opposing views. Let’s take the opportunity to make our discussions a meaningful learning experience! 

Tips for Success: Read the chapters for the week first. Keep your book next to you while you’re developing your responses, so you can refer to it as needed. Don’t have your book yet? Not a problem. The information you need to complete this assignment can be found in the weekly PPTs/ Lecture Notes.

Applying Sociology

Reminders

·

Each post must be 200+ words and include a Word Count (WC) at the end of your post, before your reference(s).

· APA formatted in-text citations and references are required for your initial post (and in response posts if assigned material is used)

· Proof read and edit before uploading your posts.
 .

 

Required Sources

· Read 
Chapter 1 
Understanding Sociology, in the Schaefer textbook

·

· Specifically, review the information under the headings Early Thinkers and Twentieth Century Developments

 

Assignment

Post 1: 
What Did You Learn? 

Review the sociology theorists profiled in the chapter and then answer the following questions: 

· Whose work seems most relevant to today’s social problems (e.g., gender inequality, racial/ethnic inequality, homophobia, poverty, crime, health care, etc.)?

· In what ways is their work still relevant?  How might their ideas inform current efforts to promote equality?

· Be sure to include appropriate APA formatted in-text citations and references

 
 

Here is an example
 to get you started. The post below would earn an “A” grade because it includes everything required from the instructions above:

 

Racism is still a social issue in the US, so I can see how W.E.B. Dubois’ work is still relevant. According to Schaefer (2022), DuBois focused his work on the experience of racial minorities so that sociological research could help contribute to overall racial equality. DuBois argued that research was needed on minorities so that their experiences could be included in social policy (Schaefer, 2022), and it is important to keep doing that now.  Continuing to include all people in research so we know what everyone experiences and how lives are similar and different is important if we want to work to reduce discrimination.  If it weren’t for DuBois research, we probably wouldn’t know about the double consciousness that he described as “the division of an individual’s identity into two or more social realities” (Schaefer, 2022, p. 12).  Here he is referring to the dual-lives that people of color live as a result of discrimination. According to Schaefer (2022), DuBois “believed that knowledge was essential in combating prejudice and achieving tolerance and justice” (p. 11). This perspective applies still today since the more we know about other groups, the better off we can be as a society in terms of racism. When we understand that different races are not really all that different and how much we can benefit from diversity, we will be in a much better place as a society.

WC 229

Reference

Schaefer, R. T. (2022).  
Sociology: A brief introduction (14th ed). McGraw-Hill.

 

Now that you have instructions and an example, select a theorist from Chapter 1 who interests YOU and relate their ideas to a current social problem (e.g., sexism, homophobia, racism, poverty, health care, crime) and complete the assignment.  I look forward to reading your posts this week!